THE 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



BY J. ORVILLE "TAYLOR. 



Elementary schools bestow and sustain the nation's liberty. 



" The virtue of mankind, and the knowledge which invigorates 
that virtue, and renders it more surely useful, are the greatest 
objects which benevolence can have in view.'? 

_____________________ Dr. Brown, 

f 



L. , NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, 

NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET. 



1834. 



LBfOU 



[Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1834, by J. Or- 
ville Taylor, in the Office of the Clerk of the Southern District 
of New-York.] 



TO 

JAMES WADSWORTH, Esq,, 

OF GENESEO, N. Y. 



In dedicating to you a work, the object of which is 

to show the actual condition of elementary schools 

among us, and to suggest practical hints as to the 

means of improving them, my only warrant is the hon- 

n Me zeal and liberal and enlightened spirit you have 

inifested in the cause of popular education. 

No one better than yourself can judge how far I have 
succeeded in my undertaking ; and no one, I feel as- 
sured, will be more ready to welcome any well directed 
effort, however humble, which may promise to advance 
the great cause you have so warmly espoused, and 
which, in the following pages, is so sincerely advo- 
cated by 

The Author. 



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in 2011 with funding from 
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■.' New-York, Oct. 1st, 1834. 
To JOHN DUER, Esq. 
Sir, 
Permit me to submit to your consideration the printed sheets 
of a work, which contains the results of some personal examina- 
tion into our elementary schools. Should the work meet your 
approbation, suffer me to request you to confer a favour on the 
cause of general education, by contributing to the "District 
School" a short preface. Yours with high regard, 

J. ORVILLE TAYLOR. 



Sir, — I have read your book with great pleasure ; if the en- 
closed remarks will meet your views, they are at your service. 

Yours with esteem, 

JOHN DUER* 



PREFACE. 

It is to parents and teachers, and in a measure 
to legislators, that this work is addressed ; and on 
the minds of those who will read it with the neces- 
sary attention it cannot fail to make a most salu- 
tary impression. The title is modest and unpre- 
tending ; the style, though eminently clear and 
forcible, plain and unlaboured ; but the subjects of 
w r hich it treats, and well and ably treats, are of the 
very highest importance, — far more important 
than the topics which are usually discussed in our 
halls of legislation, and which, dignified by the 



U PREFACE. 

eloquence of statesmen, and exaggerated by the 
arts of popular declaimers, have sometimes fixed 
the attention, and agitated the passions, of the 
whole community. The reflections of the author 
are evidently the combined result of experience 
and extensive and accurate observation ; and he 
writes with that earnest simplicity which is the 
never-failing proof of sincerity, and which, it may 
be hoped, will transfer to the minds of his readers 
a portion of his own generous and disinterested 
zeal, — his zeal in the cause of public improvement 
and general happiness, — the cause to which he has 
consecrated his talents, his attainments, and his 
future life. 

Entertaining this sense of the value of his work, 
I have felt it a duty to comply with the request of 
the author by contributing this brief preface ; nor 
have I been unwiliing, I confess, to connect my 
name with a publication which, should its circu- 
lation be as extensive as it may, and ought to be, 
will perhaps mark an era in the history of public 
instruction. 

To enforce the duty and necessity of extending 
to all the benefits of education, in the full and true 
sense of the term, — to expose the defects of the 
system of primary instruction which now prevails, 
— and to suggest some of the appropriate remedies, 
is the design of the work. On some of the subor- 
dinate topics of discussion differences of opinion 
may and will exist ; but all who are competent to 
judge, and will give their due attention to the 



PREFACE. Ill 

facts which this book discloses, must unite in the 
conclusion, that our present system of popular 
education is radically defective. It is on this point 
chiefly that the public mind requires to be dis- 
abused ; it is in relation to this that there exists — I 
speak especially of this State — a very general delu- 
sion. We are told that under the fostering patron- 
age of the government, more than half a million of 
children are taught in our common schools, — 
our pride, as citizens of the Empire State, is grati- 
fied, and we content ourselves with the general 
statement, omitting to inquire into the character 
and value of the instruction which is thus im- 
parted ; we know not, for we care not to know, that 
it is in truth so imperfect and scanty as hardly to 
deserve the name even of elementary — that it is 
unconnected with any thing resembling moral disci- 
pline or the formation of character, — that the teach- 
ers, inexperienced, transitory, snatched up for the 
occasion, are paid by salaries which hardly exceed 
the wages of the menial servant or the common 
labourer, — and that, as a necessary consequence, 
ignorant and disqualified, they are perhaps even 
overpaid by the pittance which they receive. Yet 
it is in such schools and by such instructers that 
thirty-eight out of forty of the children of the nation 
are, as we phrase it, educated. We have lived in 
a pleasing delusion ; but it is time we should awake. 
It is time that we should cease to boast of the 
superior intelligence of the American people, as 
compared with that of the population of the Old 



IV PREFACE. 

World ; we must no longer refer to our common 
schools as furnishing at once the evidence and ex- 
planation of the asserted fact ; it cannot be con- 
cealed, and ought not to be denied, that under 
one of the most arbitrary governments of Europe 
(despotic in its form, but in its present adminis- 
tration most enlightened and paternal), the children 
of all, even of the meanest peasant in the king- 
dom, are receiving, in their village and parish 
schools, more varied and solid, and in every sense 
valuable, instruction, than any of our schools, I had 
almost said academies, are accustomed or compe- 
tent to furnish ! The fact is certain : what reflec- 
tions must it suggest to the minds of Americans 
who truly honour and love their country and its 
institutions ! # 

It is to parents and teachers, as already stated, 
that the exhortations of the author are principally 
directed, and it is from their voluntary exertions 
that he seems to expect that reform, the necessity 
of which he has so clearly established. He admits 
that the school systems in active operation in 
many of the States are wisely organized; and 
that in many (meaning to include our own) " all 

* The admirable report of M. Cousin to the French govern- 
ment, " On the State of Public Instruction in Prussia," the pub- 
lication of which has excited so lively an interest in Europe as 
well as in France, has been lately translated by Mrs. Austin, the 
authoress of the very best translation in the English language, — 
that of " The Tour of a German Prince." This report, together 
with the admirable preface of Mrs. Austin, ought without delay 
to be republished in this country. 



PREFACE. V 

that legislation can do has already been done." 
From this last opinion I am compelled to state 
my entire dissent. Looking to the models of Ger- 
many and France, no "system of public instruc- 
tion" has yet been organized in any of the States, 
and in none has the appropriate work of legislation 
been more than commenced. I do not hesitate to 
avow the belief, that without regulations far more 
extensive than have yet been introduced, — a control 
far more enlightened and constant than has yet been 
exercised, — and fiscal aid far more ample than has 
yet been afforded, it is vain to expect that the 
character of our common schools can be truly and 
permanently improved. It is conceded by all that 
nothing can be done without competent teachers, 
and such teachers, in the number and of the quali- 
fications required, we can never have, unless they 
are properly trained, and properly examined, and 
watched, and controlled, and, above all, properly 
rewarded. 

Neither the districts, nor the towns, gener- 
ally speaking, are willing or even able to select 
or reward such teachers, and still less to prepare 
them for their functions, and direct them in their 
labours. If good is to be done, we must bring our 
minds as soon as possible to the confession of the 
truth, that the education of the people, to be effect- 
ual, must here as elsewhere, to a great extent, be the 
work of the State ; and that an expense, of which 
all should feel the necessity, and all will share the 
benefit, must, in a just proportion, be borne by all 
A2 



VI PREFACE. 

It is true that the public mind must be prepared 
for legislative action, and the belief of the value of 
that education which alone merits the name must 
be far more pervading and serious than it now is, 
before legislatures will have either the inclination 
or the courage to act. 

The dissemination of this book, and of the truths 
which it contains, will tend thus to prepare the 
public mind, to produce the right state of feeling 
and of thought ; for assuredly it will not be read in 
vain by parents who are such in heart and in con- 
science, not in name merely. 

There are some truths which it may be painful 
to confess, yet are most' necessary to be known* 
To the reflecting and the candid it will not seem 
extravagant to say that the chief source of the 
evils, the disorders, the crimes which afflict society, 
is to be found in the heartless indifference of 
the higher classes, the rich, the educated, the 
refined, towards the comfort and well-being of 
those they term or deem their inferiors, and their 
consequent neglect of the intellectual and moral im- 
provement of those who always have been, and 
would seem by the order of Providence, always 
must be, the most numerous class, — those who de- 
pend on their daily labour for their daily support. 
It is this neglect, the alienation it produces, the ig- 
norance it perpetuates, the vices it fosters, which 
leave marked the broad line of separation, on the 
one side of which are the few, indolent, disdainful, 



PREFACE. Vll 

proud, on the other the many, restless, envious, dis- 
contented. It is this which keeps the minds of 
a multitude in a constant state of irritation, and 
which, when the base demagogue seeks to array 
the poor against the rich, collects the crowd of his 
willing auditors, and arms him with his dreaded 
power. It is this which caused the atrocities 
of the French Revolution, and which deepens 
and darkens the cloud that now hangs over Eng- 
land. It is this neglect — the grand crime of civ- 
ilized and Christian society, which, in every 
country, sooner or later, and in none more cer- 
tainly than in our own, if continued, is destined to 
meet a fearful retribution. Here most emphati- 
cally is it true, that the people must be raised to 
the level of their rights and duties, must be made 
the safe depositaries of the power which they pos- 
sess, or in the history of other republics we may 
read our own fate : — first, lawless anarchy — next, 
the calm which fear and the bayonet produce — 
the calm of military despotism. 

How then are these evils to be prevented? — 
this fate to be averted? I answer, all that is 
odious, all that is dangerous in the distinctions 
which the free acquisition and the lawful enjoyment 
of property must always create, will soon vanish, 
and all classes be united in the enduring bonds of 
sympathy and gratitude, when the rich (I include 
all who have the leisure or means to bestow) shall 
understand and feel that it is their paramount duty 
to improve the physical and elevate the moral 



Vlll PREFACE. 

condition of their fellow-beings, or, to express 
nearly the whole in one word— to educate the 
poor. 

Let those on whom the burthen ought to fall 
willingly assume— -cheerfully sustain it, and there 
will be no further obstacle to the action of the 
Legislature, no further difficulty in organizing a 
system effectual, permanent, universal. 

All that has been done in Prussia, and is about 
to be done in France, may be done here, and 
neither the patriot, the philanthropist, nor the Chris- 
tian can desire more. 

J. D. 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION I. 

DUTIES OF PARENTS IN EDUCATING THEIR CHILDREN. 

These duties have been treated in too general a man- 
ner — The peculiar duties of those who educate their 
children in the district school have not been sufficiently 
enforced — These considered — The parent's first duty is 
self- examination — The parent is the natural instructor 
and guardian of the child — Parents neglect their chil- 
dren during the susceptible years of infancy — Children 
begin to act and learn from the first moment of their ex- 
istence — Parents do not notice the effect of their own 
example before infants — The mother may shape the 
character — Parents leave the education of their children 
too much with the schoolmaster — They frequently have 
a bad government over their children at home — Difficult 
to govern such children — Parents should co-operate with 
the teacher — Supply his defects — Parents should con- 
tinue their children's education after the school days are 
ended — This by giving them the means of knowledge — 
By example — By showing the pleasures and advantages 
of knowledge — The parent's happiness depends upon 
the education of his children — The child's happiness de- 
pends upon its education — The difference of early train- 
ing makes the great difference among men — It is the 
parent's duty to his country to educate his children — It 
is his duty to society — If the parent does not educate 
his children, the world will— Virtue and knowledge need 
a teacher — If children are useful in after-life, it will be 
because they obtained the power to be so while young. 



X CONTENTS. 

SECTION II. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. 

The want of well qualified teachers in the United 
States — The number of common school teachers em- 
ployed — Some of the deficiencies described— Ignorant 
of the studies which they teach — Ignorant of the nature 
and operations of the youthful mind — No preparation 
made for teaching — The profession made a temporary 
thing — In the first place, teachers should well consider 
the nature of their employment — Teachers should ex- 
amine their acquirements — They should be good readers 
— The poor reading in our schools noticed—Instructions 
in this art to teachers — The example of good reading in 
the teacher- — Teachers should be good penmen — They 
should be ready and accurate in the science of Arith- 
metic — With Geography — -Teachers should have a 
thorough knowledge of the Grammar and Philosophy of 
the English Language — They should be well versed in 
History — They should be able to impart knowledge to 
others— The inability of teachers, and all students, to tell 
what they know, or what they think they know — Our 
system of education deficient, in making men commu- 
nicate, or make a practical use of what they learn — The 
great necessity of the teacher's having this ability of im- 
parting to others, 37 

SECTION III. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS, CONTINUED. 

A teacher should have a good moral character — He 
should govern himself— He should have a good judg- 
ment — A teacher should have an even, uniform temper 
— He should have decision and firmness — He should be 
able to sympathise with his pupils — He should be 
able to discriminate character — He should be able to 
illustrate and simplify — He should teach as Nature 
teaches, 52 



CONTENTS. XI 

SECTION IV. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS, CONCLUDED. 

A teacher should love his business — He should make 
his business his study and his profession — He should be 
patient and persevering — He should be able and disposed 
to overcome the various difficulties of his arduous 
profession — Several difficulties described — A teacher 
should always appear pleasant and affectionate — He 
shoild be qualified to show his pupils the importance 
of knowledge, 65 

SECTION V. 

THE ADAPTATION AND IMPORTANCE OF COMMON SCHOOLS, 
AND THE DUTIES OF THOSE WHO HAVE A GENERAL SU- 
PERINTENDENCE OVER THEM. 

The school system, adopted by the state of New- 
York, recommended — The wisdom of this system— 
The importance of good common or district schools — 
The neglect which learned and leading men have given 
them — The claims of these schools upon the wise and 
wealthy — The good effects of general intelligence — The 
duties of Inspectors — The lax manner in which they 
fulfil their duties — They should be more rigid — The 
duties of the Trustees of common schools — The man- 
ner they have performed their duties — The duties of 
Commissioners — The duties which ministers owe to 
common schools — The duties of every inhabitant of the 
district, 75 

SECTION VI. 

TEACHING SHOULD BE MADE A PROFESSION. 

The teacher's profession should be made as distinct 
as the lawyer's or the divine's — We should require 
professional knowledge in the teacher as w T ell as in the 
preacher — Teaching is not made honourable because 
teachers have not prepared themselves for their business 
— Teachers should avail themselves of all the help they 



Xll CONTENTS. 

can obtain — It must be their highest ambition to be good 
schoolmasters — In a profession there is a constant ac- 
cumulation of experimental knowledge — In the art of 
teaching there is no instruction in the past — Teachers 
have not communicated with each other- — If teaching 
was made a profession, teachers would sympathize with 
each other — They would feel that they had the honour 
of the profession to support — That the eyes of the world 
were on them — That they might be known and hon- 
oured — He could then compare himself with other teach- 
ers — Each teacher would receive a part of the respect 
which would be paid to the profession, .... 89 

SECTION VII. 

THE GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE OF A SCHOOL. 

The government of a school should be a constant 
moral discipline — The end and object of all government 
should be, to make men govern themselves— The teacher 
should labour to make his pupils understand what is 
right and what is wrong, or the foundation of law — A 
teacher should govern his scholars as rational, moral 
beings — The superiority of a government of reason — 
Punishment should always answer its end — Punish- 
ments should not be inflicted before the school — Crimes 
which are common should be brought before the school 
—-The teacher should show his scholars that he is acting 
under moral obligations — A teacher should have the 
same government over himself out of school, that he 
has in school — The government of a school should be 
regular and systematic — A teacher should not threaten 
or fret — A government should not be severe at one time 
and lax at another — The manners of children in school 
— The manners of the American people — The language 
of scholars, 95 

SECTION VIII. 

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHERS. 

The teacher is placed with the young and ignorant 



CONTENTS* X1U 

mind, which is to be instructed — Teachers do not feel 
the responsibility of their office — Their responsibility- 
is increased by an original principle in children to im- 
itate — The principle of imitation may be turned to a 
good account — Teachers are under a high responsibil- 
ity, since to them parents have committed the education 
of their children — Society expects that teachers will 
make the children and youth social, honourable, and be- 
nevolent members— Teachers are responsible to their 
country for the manner in which they educate her youth 
— The responsibility of teachers is great, from the con- 
sideration that they will give character to future com- 
munities — The responsibility of teachers is seen, by 
reflecting, that the happiness of each scholar is, in a 
great measure, in the hands of the instructer — And 
lastly, how responsible are teachers, since their influ- 
ence will reach into the world "that is to come," . 107 

SECTION IX. 

THE TEACHER'S COMPENSATION. 

The labours of a teacher are arduous and responsi- 
ble — They are not well rewarded — There is no labour 
for which the American people do not pay more than 
they do for Elementary Teaching — A young man can- 
not afford to expend one cent in preparing himself to 
teach a common school — The unwillingness of parents 
to pay an adequate compensation to qualified teachers 
— Parents do not perceive the bad effects of giving low 
wages to teachers — If parents would give higher wages, 
it would induce young men to qualify themselves for in- 
structing — It would be for the parent's interest to pay 
higher wages, and employ qualified teachers — In the 
first place, because it would save tuition money — In the 
second place, because it would save their children's 
time — And in the third place, because it would save 
parents much expense in Books, Paper, Maps, Slates, 
&c. — By employing a proper teacher parents would 
know that their children would be well educated — Chil- 

B 



XIV CONTENTS. 

dren would then love the school- — If parents would in- 
crease the teacher's wages, they would raise the char- 
acterof the teacher's profession — Parents cannot receive 
the advantages of the School System unless they employ 
qualified teachers — And finally, to pay well qualified 
teachers is the only way for parents to increase the use- 
fulness, and raise the character of district schools, 119 

SECTION X. 

A TEACHER SHOULD MAKE HIS SCHOOL PLEASANT. 

Children and youth are governed almost entirely 
by their feelings — A teacher must control and take 
advantage of this government— The influence of first 
impressions with those who are governed by feeling — 
The teacher must love his school if he would make it 
pleasant — He must create friendship and good-will 
among his scholars— The teacher can make his school 
pleasant by making the acquisition of knowledge the 
means of happiness — By giving his pupils timely and 
agreeable recreations — He may make his school pleas- 
ant by simplifying the studies, and by presenting his 
instructions in an attractive form — The teacher may 
make his school pleasant by getting the love and confi- 
dence of his scholars, . _ . .131 

SECTION XL 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING SPELLING AND READING. 

The early age when children begin to learn — They 
may learn the names of the letters as they learn the 
names of their playthings or associates — The early in- 
structions of parents-— The usual method of teaching the 
letters described — A better method suggested — Direc- 
tions in teaching children the powers of letters— Its dif- 
ficulty—The bad habit of not separating and pronounc- 
ing the syllables when the word is spelt — The error 
(in learning to spell) of correcting with the ear what 
belongs to the eye— A better method of teaching spell- 
ing — The evil of confining the children's attention for 



CONTENTS. XV 

so long a time to mere words — The pupil should con- 
nect a meaning with words as soon as possible — The 
unsuitableness of the books which children use while 
learning to read — The bad effect of pronouncing words 
without affixing any meaning, and of reading what we 
do not understand — At present, the pupil reads to master 
the words, not to get knowledge— The reason of so much 
poor reading and speaking shown — Proper readingbooks 
recommended — Children should not read what they do 
not understand — The inability of the unlearned and 
learned to give a correct definition to the words in com- 
mon use — The evil of this—The bad practice of reading 
with unnatural tones of voice — Teachers do not attend 
to articulation — Rules to pupils in a common school 
that they may learn to read well, . . . . . .141 

SECTION XII. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 

The universality of bad penmanship — The time and 
money wasted in learning to write — The usual but de- 
fective method of teaching writing described — The po- 
sition of the pupil at the writing desk — The way in 
which the pen is held — Bad ink — Improper desks — The 
teacher attending to something else while the scholars 
are writing — The teacher's criticisms too general — The 
unfitness of the copies set — The advantages of writing 
a good hand — The child should commence writing at 
an early age — In their first lessons scholars should use 
the slate and pencil — The advantages of using the slate 
and pencil — Directions to the pupil when it begins to 
use the pen and writing book — The cause of bad ink — 
The natural position of the pupil, and the proper man- 
ner of holding the pen described— Pupils should make 
their pens — The hands should be kept pliable — Scholars 
should read writing more — They should practise writing 
without a copy-plate, . . . . . . . . .154 



XVI CONTENTS. 

SECTION XIII. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGKAPHY. 

The study of Geography is very general, but not of 
much benefit, in the way it is now taught — Some of the 
defects in the present system of teaching Geography 
mentioned ; and first, scholars do not easily perceive, 
and in many cases never, the true figure and motions of 
the earth from its representation on the plain surfaces 
of Maps—There is a want of Globes — Secondly, the 
weak and limited minds of pupils are required to look 
over too much space, and at too many objects at once — 
Thirdly, scholars learn the definitions of the names of 
places, but do not form any idea of their situation and 
appearance — Fourthly, the representation of places and 
objects on the map, by marks, lines, and spaces, do not 
cause the child to conceive their true position, appear- 
ance, and location — Fifthly, there is too much said of 
dress, and fashions, and manners, and people ; the pu- 
pils think of persons rather than places — These evils 
may receive a remedy — The child may commence the 
study of Geography when five or six years old — The 
inductive method of teaching Geography explained, and 
strongly recommended — The several steps in the study 
mentioned — The symmetry which the study of Geogra- 
phy gives the mind — Instructions to teachers and learners 
of Geography* 166 

SECTION XIV. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 

Scholars obtain but little from arithmetic which is of 
any practical use—The reasons for this suggested — 
The first steps are not mastered — The examples in the 
book not practical — The rules are committed but not 
understood — The tables but partly learned — The dis- 
gust for the science — The sums worked out by the 
teacher not understood by the scholars — The books^ 
deficient—Teachers do not bring enough of the business 
of the world into the school-room — Almost the first 



CONTENTS. XVU 

thing which the child notices is number — The arithmet- 
ical operations of the infant mind — The encouragement 
and direction which teachers should give to these ope- 
rations — The assistance of visible, tangible signs — 
Prudence in the use of signs which represent abstract 
numbers — Directions in learning the tables — The ne- 
cessity of practical business sums from the teacher 
— The teacher should aim at rapidity of operation, and 
discipline of mind, 179 

SECTION XV. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 

The nature and use of grammar — The facts and phe- 
nomena upon which the grammar of a language is 
founded — The distinctions between the several classes 
of words or parts of speech are clear and immutable — 
All have the opportunity of observing these facts and 
phenomena— The reasons for grammar being an import- 
ant study to all — Grammar has been considered diffi- 
cult- — Difficulties have arisen from the manner in which 
it is taught, not from the nature of the science — But few 
scholars are benefited by the study of grammar — The 
study has consisted in committing to memory and in 
guessing — A practical knowledge of the science is level 
with the capacities of all — The deficiency of books — 
The rules and definitions not understood — Teachers are 
seldom good grammarians — A system of teaching gram- 
mar recommended which has been thoroughly tested — 
The importance of giving correct definitions to this sci- 
ence has never been sufficiently considered — The reason 
given for so much guessing in the parsing exercises — 
The several parts of speech considered separately — 
Their various modifications — -The ability which the 
pupil now has — Further directions in finishing the study 
of grammar, 192 

SECTION XVI. 

HISTORY SHOULD BE MADE A STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 

American youth neglect the history of their country 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

—We know more of the history of other nations — Chil- 
dren and youth should study their country's history, and 
prize it as the great register of civil rights and noble 
deeds — It would prepare them to act for the present 
and the future — -Our history should be taught at home, 
and at school, and by the way-side — Some of the great 
events of our history alluded to — Who does not wish to 
acquaint himself with these I— The aid which history 
would give, 206 

SECTION XVII. 

COMPOSITION SHOULD BE PRACTISED IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 

There is but little attention to composition in our 
common schools — To compose well is not made a 
necessary qualification in the teacher — Scholars dislike 
composition, and consider the art a mystery — Scholars 
make an improper choice of subjects for composition — 
They suppose that something entirely original must be 
written — In composition, scholars practise the harder to 
learn the easier— The bad influence of ill-directed efforts 
and wrong instruction — The preventive of these evils 
— Directions to young writers— Composition should have 
a prominent place in our primary schools— The good 
effects of exercises in composition — The scholars ina- 
bility to communicate his ideas — Composition not diffrV 
cult — Directions to the teacher, 209 

SECTION XVIII. 

CONVENTIONS OF TEACHERS. 

Conventions may improve teachers and the systems 
of instruction — Other classes of men and professions 
have their conventions — The utility of these conventions 
— Teachers' conventions may be made as useful — The 
teacher needs all the help he can get — The necessity of 
teachers' conventions — The object of conventions — The 
business that may be transacted before them — The mu- 
tual improvement of teachers — Means proposed at these 
conventions for improving the condition of the schools 



CONTENTS. XIX 

and the state of education — Means that may be used at 
these conventions for exciting an interest in primary 
schools, and of arousing the indifference of parents, 216 

SECTION XIX. 

THE LOCATION AND STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Our school-houses are among the worst specimens of 
architecture — The reasons for this — The improper loca- 
tion of school-houses — The influence of such locations 
— The bad structure of school-houses — A proper loca- 
tion described — The teaching of outward objects, whether 
animate or inanimate — The size of a suitable school- 
house — Its proper structure — Suitable fixtures — The in- 
fluence of unsuitable seats and desks — School-houses 
are poorly ventilated — The bad effects of impure air — 
The play-ground for the scholars — Wood-house — A 
suitable watering-place, 223 

SECTION XX. 

RHETORIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

The common belief that scholars must " learn how" 
to speak — The popularity of artificial systems of rhet- 
oric — These do not give a good natural delivery — The 
universal practice of speaking in elementary schools — 
The effect of so much artificial training — Objections 
against artificial schemes of rhetoric — Notice of some 
ingenious and useful remarks from authors of artificial 
schemes—The different tones of voice which the same 
individual makes use of in conversation from those which 
he uses while reading — The effect of reading in these 
unnatural tones — The impressiveness of a natural man- 
ner — The sense should be thought of, and let nature 
suggest the manner — The natural manner does not con- 
sist in taking no pains at all — The difficulties of reading 
or speaking naturally, that is, according to the sense, 
the subject, the place, and the occasion — Under these 
artificial schemes, scholars are unfitted for instruction in 
elocution when they enter higher institutions — Yet, we 



XX CONTENTS. 

think it the duty of every elementary teacher to do all 
in his power to make his pupils good readers and speak- 
ers — But he should not use art — Let nature teach — 
Teachers should begin with scholars when they learn 
their letters-— The habits formed while learning to spell 
and read — Articulation — Let nothing be read but what 
is understood — Let the scholar withdraw his attention 
from himself, and enter into the feelings and thoughts of 
the author — Unsuitable pieces selected for declamation 
— Proper subjects for speaking pointed out — The ad- 
vantages of a natural manner, • . . . . . .231 

SECTION XXL 

RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN COMMON SCHOOLS, . . 247 



PART II. 



SECTION I. 

EVILS FROM IGNORANCE. 

The universal truths which history presents — The 
imaginary evils which ignorance has connected with the 
Laws of Nature — Eclipses, Comets, Judicial Astrology, 
Ignis-Fatui, Superstitious notions, Spectres, Ideal Agen- 
cies, Foolish and Erroneous Maxims, Whimsical and 
False Sayings — The prevalence of these and their great 
evil — The cruelty and injustice from ignorance — Evils 
which the ignorant bring upon themselves by not per- 
ceiving and conforming to the natural relations which 
exist between themselves and the objects around them 
— Evils from an improper and excessive use of the 
senses — The intellectual nature designed to govern the 
sensual — Evils from the government of the animal 
nature — Evils of the ignorance of Muscular Action — 
Evils from not perceiving the teachings of the Creator 
— Evils from the want of a moral and intellectual 
vision, , , 266 



CONTENTS. XXI 

SECTION II. 

ADVANTAGES OF KNOWLEDGE. 

A comparison of the means of happiness between a 
literate and illiterate people — Knowledge, by showing 
the true principles and nature of things, will prevent 
those evils which originate in ignorance — The founda- 
tion of science — The favourable employment of the en- 
lightened farmer — The ability of the intelligent practical 
man — Knowledge makes men more skilful in the arts — 
The advantage which the intelligent agriculturist has 
over his less informed neighbour — The necessity of a 
good education, that men may be profited by public in- 
struction — The reason of so much indifference to useful 
knowledge — The instructions of the public — Knowledge 
would qualify men for judging correctly of human char- 
acter and human happiness — The advantages of know- 
ledge is seen by making a judicious selection of books — 
The enlightened man has the advantage of knowing 
what is transacting in the world — Knowledge would 
cause all, after an honest examination, to see the evi- 
dence of revealed religion — Knowledge assists us in 
forming more enlarged and correct conceptions of the 
Deity — Knowledge is necessary, likewise, that we may 
know in what true happiness consists, .... 276 

SECTION III. 

THE NECESSITY OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE IN A FREE 
GOVERNMENT. 

In a free government, the people should be intelligent 
enough to make their laws, and virtuous enough to obey 
them — Each individual's intelligence and virtue are the 
depository and defence of his liberty — Knowledge stands 
in the place of armies, revenues, and a throne—Know- 
ledge is necessary to perceive the nature and value of 
literary and civil institutions— To know when justice is 
administered — Knowledge is necessary, for the people in 
the inferior courts are the judicial part of the govern- 
ment— -Knowledge is necessary, that the people may see 



XX11 CONTENTS. 

the effect of crime and the justice of punishment — To 
distinguish between the particular and general effect of 
crime — The mischiefs of perjury and stealing consid- 
ered, for illustration — Knowledge is necessary, that men 
who govern themselves may see the agreement between 
civil and revealed law — To see the necessity of obeying 
the laws — To enable men to regulate their wants and 
claims to the wants and claims of others — Knowledge 
is necessary that all may see the wants of society for 
professional men— Knowledge is required that men may 
not be deceived by the errors of the press — And lastly, 
knowledge is necessary that all may know who are the 
enlightened and conscientious friends and supporters of 
their free institutions, 290 

SECTION IV. 

DUTIES WHICH WE OWE TO EACH OTHER. 

Society natural to man — Advantages of society — Some 
of the laws which the Creator has given man in society 
— The duties of justice — We should be just towards the 
property of others — We should not interfere with the 
freedom of others' actions — Justice makes us respect the 
character and reputation of others — Justice requires us 
to exercise fairness in forming our opinions of others — 
Justice is to be exercised in judging of the statements 
of others — Justice enjoins us to respect the feelings and 
affections of others — Justice demands that we should be 
impartial in estimating the talents of others — And jus- 
tice demands that we should not injure the moral prin- 
ciples of others—The duty of veracity — It should make 
men faithful and critical in ascertaining facts — Scrupu- 
lous in stating them — And faithful in the fulfilment of 
promises — Benevolence, or the duties which consist in 
doing good — We should administer to each other's ne- 
cessities — Our benevolence should be eager to relieve 
personal suffering — It is our duty to attend to the edu- 
cation of others — It is our duty to make men moral- 
Benevolence disposes us to be agreeable to our fellow- 



CONTENTS. XXlii 

men — And lastly, in all our intercourse with men, we 
should endeavour to make peace, 302 

SECTION V. 

PATRIOTIC DUTIES TO OUR COUNTRY. 

Nature has laid a foundation for distinct communities 
— The influence of Knowledge and Reason — The love 
of our country natural and a duty — Our first patriotic 
duty is the duty of obedience — That considered which 
gives moral and legal authority — An objection to Black- 
stone's definition of Law — The source of the laws in 
the United States — The origin of our Government — It is 
a duty to respect those who are elected to civil offices 
— The third duty mentioned is, we should defend the 
Laws and Constitution of our country — We should not 
only obey, respect, and defend our country, but, in the 
fourth place, we should increase the means of public 
happiness in the nation — The citizen is to improve the 
laws—Caution in making innovation—The reason why 
men are apt to make changes under the name of reform 
— We may augment the happiness of our country by in- 
creasing its products — By opening new markets for its 
products — By facilitating the intercourse between dis- 
tricts—By the establishment of institutions of charity 
and instruction — By being able and disposed to correct 
the errors which exist in the system of Government — 
By adapting the form of Government to the condition 
and character of the People — And lastly, by making our- 
selves virtuous and intelligent, . . . . . . - . 320 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

SECTION I. 

DUTY OP PARENTS IN EDUCATING THEIR CHILDREN. 

There has been much said and written on the 
duties of parents ; and it is well that this subject 
has been so frequently and ably discussed, for 
there is no other of greater importance. In 
what will now be said, there may be nothing new ; 
and I shall feel satisfied in bringing to notice 
some of the duties which many have frequently 
felt and performed. Many of the duties of pa- 
rents, respecting their children's education, have 
heretofore been treated in too general a manner. 
We need not only to be reminded of our duties, 
but to be reminded in such a manner that we shall 
see and feel them, and be assisted in doing them. 
Parents who educate their children in the district 
school have many duties peculiar to themselves ; 
and they are such as have not been sufficiently 
enforced by former writers on this subject. It is 
my design to notice these more particularly, and 
to suit my remarks to those parents who have the 

C 



26 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

means of the district school only for the education 
of their children. Many of these parents, not 
having been privileged with good schools, or 
leisure to attend such while they were young, 
do not so readily perceive the advantages of 
knowledge, and consequently are apt to neglect 
a better provision for the education of their 
children. To such, particularly, we hope that 
what may be said will be both acceptable and 
useful. 

The first duty which parents owe to their chil- 
dren is self-examination. Are you what you 
wish your children to be ? Have you that even- 
ness of temper, that government over your own 
heart, thoughts, and actions which you would like 
to see in your children ? Have you that justice, 
industry, and frugality which you desire your 
children to possess ? Do you consider yourself at 
all times a proper example to your family ? Such 
questions, or similar ones, should you put to your- 
self before you assume the responsible duties of 
forming the character of others. To educate your 
children, in the full sense of the term, is to form 
their characters, — to give them a character which 
will last, not only through time, but through eter- 
nity. 

Parents are the natural guardians of their chil- 
dren. To you is committed the protection and 
education of those whom God has given you ; and 
you will be accountable for the faithfulness or un- 
faithfulness in which you perform this duty. You 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 27 

fiave strong obligations and high duties to society, 
to your country, and to your friends ; but much 
stronger, and infinitely higher ones to yourselves, 
to your children, and your Creator. Every man 
and woman has the care of his or her own heart 
and ways, and the hearts and ways of those who 
are helpless and ignorant, but yet committed to 
their trust. Parents may receive liberty and pro- 
tection from government, — they may receive com- 
forts and enjoyments from society, but from these 
sources they can receive but little aid in the pri- 
mal education of their children. This is a work 
which belongs to themselves exclusively. To pa- 
rents is entrusted the infant mind when it begins 
its immortal career. 

But, from the supposed insensibility and inca- 
pacity of the child, during the three or four first 
years of its existence, parents often neglect the 
education, or the formation of the character, at 
that early but susceptible age. Many parents 
seem not to observe, that the infant commences 
acting and learning from the first moment of its 
existence. They see not that every look from its 
mother, every notice from its father, every animate 
and inanimate object which gets its attention, every 
sound and tone of voice, and family circumstance, 
are forming a character in the child, making im- 
pressions which will control and endure, and giving 
some kind of an education, either good or bad, 
which will influence the after-life. 

Parents who do not perceive the wakeful atten- 



28 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

tion and deep susceptibilities of early childhood, are 
not careful how they order their own conduct before 
their offspring, nor are they guarded in their ex- 
pressions, and thus insensibly form a character 
which all their after-instruction and good example 
will never change. Parents should know the ca- 
pacities of their children, — ascertain what passion 
or propensity is acquiring undue strength, and how 
far the child is capable of receiving wholesome re- 
straint and moral instruction. They should see 
that circumstances, apparently fortuitous, often 
have great influence ; if not carefully observed 
and diligently counteracted, they will give to the 
early character a strong bias, which will be un- 
happy in its tendency. 

The mother has the whole education of her chil- 
dren till they are three or four years old. During 
this time she may stamp a character, which will 
remain through life. She may so moderate the 
passions, restrict the appetites, correct the desires, 
and obtain such a government over the child's 
mind and affections, as to form the most decided 
character. After the child commences going to 
school, much of its time is still spent with the 
parents. The duties of parents are relieved by 
the teacher but a short time. The watchfulness 
and care of the parent, at this period, when the 
child is meeting with new companions, new modes 
of government, and an increased number of ob- 
jects, which are exerting a strong influence, should 
be greater than before. Even if the privilege of a 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 20 

school be enjoyed, the education of the children 
belongs, in a great degree, to the parent. By the 
parent it must be commenced, carried forward, and 
completed. 

Parents leave the education of their children too 
much with the schoolmaster. You appear to 
think, that providing your offspring with food and 
clothing is all that is required of you : the educa- 
tion, the formation of the character, you say, be- 
longs to the teacher. This cannot be so. Your 
example, companions, opinions, a nd expressions, 
will all unite with the teacher's instructions. You 
should, instead of trusting all to the teacher, co- 
operate with him, unite your labours with his, and 
ascertain the influence of the teacher and the in- 
fluence of the school upon the child. Do not 
speak unfavourably of the teacher before your 
children, but teach them to love the instructer and 
the school-room, and at all times to be obedient. 
If your children are under good government at 
home, it will greatly aid the teacher in managing 
them at school ; but, if the government at home is 
bad, it will be difficult for the instructer to control 
their conduct, or establish any government over 
them during the school hours. You often com- 
plain of the defective government of the teacher, 
yet do not perceive that the children are under no 
restraint at home. You, perhaps, have indulged 
them in every whim and desire ; subdued but few 
of their vicious inclinations ; suffered them to grow 
up disobedient and inattentive : and no w 7 how ca& 

C2 



30 district" school* 

you expect the teacher to bring them under an 
orderly, respectful behaviour at school 1 Do not 
find fault with the teacher till you have examined 
your own government, and ascertained how far 
you have fitted them for obeying or disobeying 
others. 

In your family government, during the stated 
times you may appoint for instructing your chil- 
dren, during the leisure moments you may get 
from your labours, in all your conversation and in 
your daily walk, you should unite with your influ- 
ence and instructions in aiding the teacher of your 
school. Let the studies of your children while at 
school be their principal business. Do not send 
them to school one day, and keep them at home 
the next ; do not divert their minds in any manner ; 
at all times feeling that the education of your chil- 
dren is the greatest duty you owe to them. Co-* 
operate with the teacher of your school, by fur- 
nishing the children with suitable books, and an 
appropriate school-room, well supplied with every 
necessary. If your teacher is not qualified, you 
should counteract his bad influence and supply his 
defects. You should often visit the school and see 
its condition, and examine the progress of the chil- 
dren. Ascertain for yourselves the real qualifica-* 
tions of the teacher and the government of his 
school, and do not trust to the accounts your chil- 
dren may give of either ; and, at all times, let the 
school have your attention and your aid. 

After your children have ended their school 



PISTRICT SCHOOL, * 31 

days, you should still carry on their education. 
This you may do by providing them with periodi- 
cal papers,' with instructive and entertaining books, 
with the privileges of public lectures, and with 
your own experience and instructive conversation. 
Strive to give your children a taste for knowledge, 
a love of home and study, and a relish for intellec- 
tual and moral improvement. You should love 
knowledge yourself, and set a good example in the 
cultivation of the heart and mind. If you are not 
fond of reading, it is not likely your children will 
be— if you do not find pleasure in knowledge, your 
children will suppose it has no enjoyment for 
them. You should show them the necessity and 
the advantage of knowledge. Let them see the 
application of what they do know ; and let there 
always be an increased desire to know more. 

Your own happiness may depend upon the edu- 
cation of your children. Why is it that so many 
young men consider home a burden ? Why do so 
many assemble in vicious places for amusement? 
Why is company their ruin, and society a snare ? 
Because they have never been educated to the love 
of knowledge ; because they have no pleasure in 
the society of intelligent and virtuous men. If you 
wish to keep your children from the temptations of 
a wicked world, from its schools of iniquity and 
vice, which are open in every place, let them have 
such an education that they may find pleasure in 
themselves. Let them not be dependent for hap- 
piness on the gratification of their senses ; let them 



32 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

not be fitted only for the company of the ignorant 
and the corrupted. The reason why young men 
are so prone to low and grovelling pleasures is, 
their minds are not cultivated. A taste for useful 
knowledge would exclude the taste for dissipation ; 
and the gratification of mind would be cheaper as 
well as happier. If children were taught to think, 
and assisted to discover materials for thought, they 
would find a pleasure in the exercise of their 
rational faculties far exceeding the gross pleasures 
of animal indulgence. If your children were 
taught to enjoy this pleasure, and were furnished 
with the means of obtaining it, by books of an 
interesting and useful character, and by sensible 
and rational conversation, home would be rendered 
attractive, and they would not feel the necessity of 
roving abroad in search of something to amuse 
them. If they were trained to habits of reflection, 
they would not run into so many evils from mere 
thoughtlessness. If they were taught the value of 
useful knowledge, they would not waste their time 
in the perusal of those works of fiction with which 
the world is flooded, and which are so dangerous 
in their tendency : dangerous from the erroneous 
views they give of real life, the corrupt sentiments 
they often contain, and the fascinating attractions 
with which they surround vice and crime. An 
expensive education is not necessary. It is such 
an education as you can give them in your district 
school and at your own fire-side. If you will begin 
early with your children, and teach them to think, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 3S 

and inquire into the reason of things, you will find 
abundant means and materials within your reach 
for such mental cultivation as is here intended. 

A child that grows up in ignorance and in 
vicious habits is not only helpless, but hopeless. 
A child that grows up intelligent and virtuous will 
not only be happy, but will render all so within his 
influence. How delightful it must be to parents 
to see their offspring growing up around them, 
learned, cheerful, and happy in themselves, and 
increasing the happiness of all with whom they 
have intercourse. But, O how painful to see 
your children ignorant, dissipated, and wretched 
within themselves, and wherever they go blasting 
the happiness of others ! They will be either the 
one or the other, in a great measure, according to 
the education you give them. Their characters are 
formed by education. There may be some dif- 
ference in children naturally, owing to a difference 
of constitutional temperament; but it is believed 
that difference of early training makes the great 
difference observable in after-life. The Bible says, 
" Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
when he is old he will not depart from it." 
And to the parent who neglects to do this duty, 
Jehovah says, "Seeing thou hast forgotten the law 
of thy God, I also will forget thy children." 

The education of your children, likewise, is a 
duty to your country. You are under the strongest 
obligations to prepare your offspring for becoming 
intelligent, useful citizens. A freeman must be an 



34 DISTRICT SCHOOIi. 

intelligent man ; and this government, wise as it is, 
cannot make your children free, unless you first 
make them intelligent. You had better place your 
children in another land, where others will govern 
them, unless you prepare them for governing 
themselves. But, as you intend them to be mem- 
bers of this republic, which is based on intelligence, 
sustained by intelligence, and looks to intelligence 
for its protection and safeguard, you are under the 
most solemn obligations, if you love your country 
and value its blessings, to make your children in- 
telligent To permit a son unable to read to go to 
the polls, is as great an injury as you can do your 
country. It is, in fact, as far as his vote and influence 
go, as great a crime as you could commit towards 
these free institutions. In a despotic government 
ignorance is the best quality in the people, but a 
free government demands virtue and intelligence ; 
it cannot prosper, it cannot exist, without them. 
Then, if you desire the perpetuity of your liberties, 
the equal rights and privileges of these free insti- 
tutions, and the honour and glory of your happy 
country, educate your children ; fit them for en- 
acting, administering, and obeying their own laws. 
Unless you do this you are not your country's 
friend. You are also bound, and bound by ties 
stronger than any other, to make your children 
happy. It is true, you love your children ; you 
wish them every blessing ; you would not see 
them suffer a single hour. Yes, you feel probably 
quite enough concerned as to what they shall eat, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 35 

and what they shall drink, and wherewithal they 
shall be clothed. And it may be that you feel 
sufficiently concerned to have them successful in 
the world, and prosperous in their temporal affairs. 
But food and clothing are not the extent of their 
wants. Neither will wealth or honour make them 
happy. Real enjoyment, true happiness, depends 
upon the mind ; and the mind is formed by educa- 
tion. Then, if you in the least neglect the cultiva- 
tion of their minds and hearts, you cannot act the 
part of affectionate parents. You wish your chil- 
dren to be the companions of the wise and good, 
but unless they are learned and moral they will be 
unfit for such society. You wish them happy 
whether in prosperity or adversity ; then prepare 
them, by a proper education, to find happiness 
within themselves. It is exercising the mind, and 
placing the affections on things worthy of the im- 
mortal soul, that will give them satisfaction. It is 
not sensual gratification that makes man happy, 
it is thought and love. 

But you are not only to prepare your children 
for transacting the business of life, but to act upon, 
and educate other immortal beings. Your children 
will have influence upon others ; they are made for 
society, and cannot live alone : their influence will 
be felt by all with whom they have intercourse ; 
even when they shall not aim at exerting an influ- 
ence upon others, it may not be less sensibly felt. 
If their minds are so formed that they can be 
happy themselves, they will contribute to the hap- 



36 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

piness of others ; but if their education has been 
such as to render them incapable of enjoyment, they 
will be continually destroying the comfort of those 
around them ; yes, they will frequently do it by 
design, in order to gratify their selfish feelings: 
and they will do it without design — for being 
wretched, the sympathy of others will make them 
miserable also. If your children are trained up in 
the right way, they may do great good in the world ; 
but if not, they will destroy peace, and be pro- 
moters of discord and confusion. If you neglect 
their expanding minds, they may obtain in the 
schools of vice a quickness of intellect, a plausi- 
bility of address, and thus gain an influence over 
the inexperienced and unthinking, and become but 
too successful in seducing them far from the paths 
of virtue, and plunging them into the vortex of dissi- 
pation and vice ; thus blasting the hopes of many an 
affectionate parent, and bringing destruction upon 
their own souls for time and eternity. Such cases 
are common ; and they may be the cases of your 
own children if there is parental unfaithfulness. 
Your children, also, will be the educators, the 
formers of the character of their children; and 
these again will educate those that follow after, till 
the good or evil consequences of what you are 
now doing shall spread far and wide, and go down 
to the end of time. No, the consequences will not 
stop there, they will extend through eternity. O 
how responsible your situation ! 

There is another consideration which should 



DISTRICT scnooL. 37 

make you prize every privilege, and do all in your 
power to educate your children : it is this, — if they 
are ever useful and happy in after-life, it will be 
because they obtained the power to be so when 
young. When they have reached manhood, the 
character is formed, the education is completed, 
and the man will continue, with scarcely an excep- 
tion, what he then is. While your children are 
with you, under your government, they are laying 
the foundation of their future career; and this 
foundation may be whatever you shall choose : if 
it is broad and deep, they may build upon it indefi- 
nitely ; if it is false, they will get no other. What 
you prepare them to be is their only preparation. 
In most cases, what manhood finds them when 
they leave your roof, the grave will find them 
when they leave the earth. 



SECTION II. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. 

I know of nothing in which this government is 
so deficient as it is in well-qualified teachers for 
her elementary schools. Several of the states 
have wisely-organized school systems, and thesfc 
systems are mostly in active operation. In a 

D 



fgj* 



38 DISTRICT SCHOOI* 

number of the states, all that legislation can do has 
been done. The public officers, who have the dis- 
tribution of the school-fund and the more general 
management of the schools, are faithful in their 
duties, and receive the approbation of their fellow- 
citizens. The school-reports are prompt, minute, 
and accurate ; and every thing relating to the more 
general supervision usually satisfactory. The two 
great things which are still wanting are well- 
qualified teachers, and a disposition, on the part 
of the parents, to pay these teachers a reasonable 
compensation. I will speak of this disposition 
with parents in another place. The requisite 
qualifications of teachers is the subject now be- 
fore us. 

In the first place I will mention some of the de- 
ficiencies of common school-teachers ; and in the 
second place some of the qualifications which their 
office requires. I hope that I shall be excused for 
being plain ; the good of all demands that I should 
be so. 

The people of the United States employ, annu- 
ally, at least eighty thousand common-school in- 
structed. There are in the twenty-four states not 
less than sixty thousand common schools (we do 
not include either the public or the higher schools). 

Among these eighty thousand teachers, but a 
very few have made any previous preparation for 
their duties ; the most of them accidentally assume 
this office as a temporary employment. They seek 
it to fill up a vacant month or two, when they ex- 






DISTRICT SCHOOL. 39 

pect something else will offer far more lucrative 
or suitable to their wishes. Many, again, teach 
for a short time, that they may obtain a little money 
to assist them in a higher course of studies which 
they have commenced ; others make the business a 
mere step-stone to something which they consider 
far more honourable ; and a few become school- 
masters because their health will not sustain the 
exposures of the out-door weather, or, what is more 
frequently the case, because they suppose the la- 
bours of a teacher are not as rough and arduous as 
the winter-labours of a farm. 

Having become teachers from motives like these, 
they have never thought of the responsibilities of 
their office; they see not the fearful and mo- 
mentous relations which they hold to the immortal 
souls committed to their care ; and can they dis- 
charge their duties faithfully and conscientiously, 
when ignorant of what they are doing? They 
intend to teach but a short time, and therefore 
care nothing about making improvements in their 
method of instruction, or of becoming better quali- 
fied for their business. They know that the un- 
pleasant occupation will soon cease, and they do 
not wish to task their minds with it any more than 
is absolutely necessary: they probably have no 
love for the society of children, and in many cases 
have a decided dislike to any intercourse with them. 
They have associated with children but little, 
and are ignorant of the manner in which they 
learn. They know not how to sympathize with chil- 






40 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

dren, or how to please or interest them : and they 
hope soon to be free from their stupidity and vexa- 
tion, and shun all present intercourse as much as 
possible. 

Many are not able to discriminate between the 
different characters of their pupils, and have one 
unchanging treatment for all : they meet with diffi- 
culties in pleasing the parents, or in governing the 
larger scholars, and then threaten, stamp, scold, 
and whip, and conclude by losing all government 
over themselves : they have no system, and nothing 
comes in the right time or place ; every thing is in 
confusion ; eight or ten noisy scholars vociferating 
for some privilege or information at the same time : 
this throws them into a passion, and they sputter 
about without accomplishing any thing, or pro- 
ducing any order ; their patience is soon lost, and 
the irritability of their temper is worked off on some 
unlucky urchin who happens to be in the direction 
of their wrath. 

What I have said is not from the imagination ; 
I have seen many such scenes ; and so, either with 
high glee or trembling fear, has many a school-boy. 
Many, many instructers are ignorant also of what 
they are expected to teach ; they become teachers 
that they may learn, — not that they may teach 
others. Many take this office that they may ac- 
quire that knowledge which they now begin to 
feel the want of, but which was regarded as 
useless when they idled away their school-days. 
They feel the necessity of becoming the learner 7 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 41 

but to save the profession of ignorance, and the 
disgrace of their advanced age, they assume the 
name and office of instructer. Their labour in ac- 
quiring the studies prevents them from attending 
to the children, in giving them that aid which they 
require : the teacher's acquirements are suspected, 
and being measured by the acquisitions of some of 
the more advanced scholars, are frequently seen to 
suffer from the comparison ; this makes the teacher 
either embarrassed or arrogant, and therefore im- 
patient and techy. 

These are some of the defects of many of our 
teachers. Much more might be said in the way of 
finding fault, but I have not space or inclination to 
pursue this unpleasant task. One mend-fault is 
worth ten find-faults, all the world over. I will now, 
in the second place, mention some of the qualifica- 
tions which every teacher should have ; and from 
these, others, which I may not notice, may be in- 
ferred. 

In the first place, teachers should well consider 
the nature of their business. You are now T acting 
upon mind — mind that is young and flexible. 
Your example, your opinions, your address, are to 
form in your pupils such characters as will make 
them either useful and happy, or useless and miser- 
able. You are acting upon minds which will act 
upon other minds, and your whole influence will go 
towards the formation of the character of society. 
You should, then, consider well the nature of your 
business. You should examine yourselves, and see 

D2 



4£ DISTRICT SCHOOIi. 

if you are prepared for an office at once so honour- 
able, influential, and responsible. 

It will be necessary for you to examine your 
acquirements, for you should thoroughly understand 
the branches you will be expected to teach. The 
improvement of the scholars is your whole duty. 
You cannot, while an inslructer, attend to the im- 
provement of yourself, especially in those branches 
af knowledge which you are teaching your 
scholars. You cannot give what you have not ; 
and you will not be able to teach others unless you 
have first learned yourself. Before you commence 
the duties of instructing, you should have a thorough 
knowledge of the studies usually pursued in com- 
mon schools. 

You should be a good reader. The grace, 
beauty, and expression of this art cannot be taught 
by oratorical rules, nor by the machinery of punc- 
tuation. The feeling, and the force of reading, 
your pupils must learn from your example. By 
reading with that tone of voice which the sentiment 
demands, and with correct emphasis, you will be 
able to make a passage intelligible to your younger 
pupils, which you could not do by verbal defini- 
tion or ingenious illustration. To read well is to 
produce all the effect the sentiment is capable of 
doing. It is not, as many teachers would lead their 
scholars to suppose, the punctilious observance of 
pauses, the certain rise and fall of voice at the com- 
mencement and termination of every period, the 
continuous loud explosions of the high tones of the 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 43 

voice, or all these, that make agreeable or affecting 
reading. Yet we should think that many teachers 
supposed it was, from the manner they permit or 
teach their scholars to read. How many disagree- 
able, powerless readers, either from the careless- 
ness or the ignorance of teachers ! Teachers 
may see that punctuation is entirely artificial, 
and that it is impossible for it to graduate the read- 
ing as the sense would direct. You should prac- 
tically believe, that nothing can make your scholars 
read well but a full understanding, and a deep, 
adequate feeling of what they utter. You should 
be able to convince them of this by your own cor- 
rect, impressive reading. You should, by your 
reading, compel their minds to know, and believe, 
that a book has ideas — that it contains something 
which they do not know, but which they may com- 
prehend, and make their own. 

Your scholars, from the manner they are taught, 
suppose that reading well consists in nothing else 
but a correctness and facility in pronouncing words. 
The meaning they do not get themselves, nor do 
they pretend to give it to others. Now, you 
should correct this ; you should read as if your 
mind saw something, and as if you wished to show 
it to them — as if their minds were to attend to the 
thought,and not to the words, and stops, and manner. 
Show them that the same sentiment may produce 
a variety of dissimilar ideas and feelings, accord- 
ing to the way in which it is read ; and at all times, 
produce in them the conviction that good reading 



44 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

is to make the hearers feel and perceive all that the 
author felt and perceived. Now, unless you read 
well yourself, you will not be able to teach your 
pupils to read in this manner. If you read with an 
unnatural tone, with false emphasis and cadence, 
without distinct articulation, without intending to 
communicate any meaning, or with bad pronuncia- 
tion, or with hesitation, or stammering, or indistinct 
rapidity, or in a careless, awkward position and 
manner, your scholars will do the same : and on 
the other hand, if you read with grace, with feeling, 
with intelligence, and with a voice pitched in har- 
mony with the sense, your scholars will be likely 
to read in the same style. After all your instruc- 
tion, and with the help of all the rules they can 
learn, your pupils will be sure to get into bad habits 
of reading, unless your own example of good read- 
ing prevents them. I would say it then, again, 
let every teacher be a good reader. 

I have dwelt at some length on this qualification 
in a teacher, from its vast importance. A child, 
or a youth, is liable at all times to be called upon 
to read ; it is a little service, which all in good 
courtesy expect from each other, and we may 
be asked to render it by the family fireside, or in 
the drawing-room ; in the private circle, or at the 
public meeting ; at all times, and in every variety 
of circumstances ; now to amuse the cheerful, and 
now to instruct the thoughtful ; now before the 
learned, and now before the unlearned. Then, let 
what is always expected, and may be called for at 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 45 

any time, have every attention from the teacher, 
and the highest regard from the scholar. 

A teacher should be a good penman. He should 
write a round, smooth, free hand, yet one that is 
bold and rapid. You may compel the scholars to 
hold the pen correctly — you may keep them in a 
proper position — you may enforce a good degree 
of attention to their pen and marks ; but after all 
this, unless you can present them a good copy for 
imitation, your labours will be in vain. It is not 
by being told what is good, but it is by seeing it, 
that will make scholars improve in writing ; or in 
almost any thing else. Then, to be a teacher, you 
should be a good penman, and know how to make 
others excel you. 

You should be ready and accurate in the science 
of arithmetic. Your ability to make the scholars 
perform the most obvious examples, or understand 
the most simple rule, will be in proportion to the 
knowledge you have of the whole science. You 
cannot be an instructive teacher, one that will 
make the thing simple and easy, except you have 
studied the science sufficiently to see something of 
its nature and application. In the science of num- 
bers and quantity, each step teaches and illustrates 
the succeeding step. A man should be a good 
arithmetician to be a good teacher even in the 
simple rule of addition. You should be so familiar 
with this science, that you will know how the mind 
acquires this knowledge. You should be able to 
perceive at once, whether or not the pupil under- 



46 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

stands the rules of the book, or your own instructions. 
You should know when the pupil can help himself, 
and also when he needs help. You should be able to 
show the reasons for the rules ; and, what is of the 
utmost importance, to be able to make a practical use 
of the knowledge that is obtained from the book, and 
the examples, which are done out in the school-room. 
You should be able to bring the business of the 
active world into the exercises of the school, and 
make the children apply their rules and knowledge 
to this practical work, as they will one day be 
obliged to do. Let your pupils carry the same 
arithmetic into the transactions of life that they 
used in the school-room. Do not let them be 
obliged (as they are in many cases at present) 
to learn a practical science of numbers, after they 
have spent years in trying to understand that of 
which they can make no use whatever. If you have 
a thorough knowledge of arithmetic yourself, you 
can make the science easy and practical to your 
pupils ; but if you are ignorant of the science, the 
study of it will be unpleasant and unintelligible to 
those under your direction. 

You should be familiar with geography. The 
usual way in which this study is pursued, is, the 
teacher takes the book or the map in his hand, and 
hears the pupil recite what has just been commited 
to memory, without annexing any remarks, which 
would assist the scholar in forming a true concep- 
tion of the object or place w T hich the lesson has 
described. From the want of proper remarks 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 47 

and suitable illustrations, the pupil does not under- 
stand the nature of the study, and makes it a mere 
recitation from the memory, as if it was moral or 
intellectual knowledge. 

The teacher should be able to show the use of 
maps, and the manner in which they represent the 
earth and its various divisions, natural and arti- 
ficial. You should be qualified to teach the pupils 
the art of drawing maps, in an easy, attractive 
manner. You should be familiar with every part 
of the study, so that you may direct the pupil's 
search after any place without the least hesitation. 
It is frequently the case that teachers, from being 
a stranger to the study, spend a large portion of 
their time in finding places for the class in geo- 
graphy; and they are frequently unsuccessful in 
their blind search, and are obliged to cover their 
ignorance by saying, that " the place is not put 
down on the map." You should be so well ac- 
quainted with this delightful branch of knowledge, 
as to be prepared to give every part a charm 
and an interest to the young and inquiring mind, 
which will urge it on with an increased desire and 
application. If you are well acquainted with 
geography, this may be done ; and unless you are, 
learning it is your duty, not teaching it ; and it 
is not a proper time to learn when you are ex- 
pected to in struct. 

You should have a thorough knowledge of the 
grammar and philosophy of the English language. 
This science is miserably taught in our district 



48 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

schools, and the reason is, a large number of 
the teachers know but little or nothing about 
it ; or, at least, about the best method of teach- 
ing it. Your pupils usually have a great dislike 
to grammar, for they see neither sense nor 
rhyme in it. You require them to commit to 
memory a set of words which are entirely new to 
them, — a string of technical terms, which neither 
you nor the book defines ; and this is usually the 
amount of knowledge which the pupils get. The 
time that is uselessly spent in the study of grammar 
is long and tedious. The benefit which the scho- 
lars derive is nothing, or next to nothing. The 
whole of this evil arises from the teacher's igno- 
rance of the science, or from his bad method of 
teaching it. Now every teacher should readily and 
correctly see the facts and phenomena of the lan- 
guage ; he should understand its genius and philo- 
sophy, and be intimate with its forms and construc- 
tions. There are rules and principles in this science, 
which are fixed and simple ; and these the teacher 
should perceive distinctly, and be able to apply 
them to whatever form the language may present. 
The most simple parts of this science should be 
taught first ; such as the definitions of the several 
parts of speech. These definitions the teacher 
must be able to simplify and vary, so as to make 
them ii<elligib!e to the scholars. You should as- 
certain whether they understand them, by requir- 
ing the pupils to pick out the thing defined, by the 
aid of the definition. 

That a teacher should be a good grammarian is 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, & 

«o'f the utmost importance ; for we should value 
that most which we have the most frequent occa* 
sion to use. And what is there that we employ so 
often as language I All must use it. It is the 
great instrument by which mind acts upon mind ; 
and this action will be faithful or unfaithful, weak 
or powerful, according to the perfection or imper- 
fection of this instrument. What can there be, 
then, so desirable as a thorough knowledge of this 
instrument by which mind acts upon mind, that 
we may at all times make the best possible use of 
it. Teachers should make the grammar of the 
language an interesting and important study ; but 
before they can do this, they must be well versed 
in it themselves. Again, then, we would say* that 
a knowledge of grammar, an acquaintance with 
the philosophy of the language, and the ability to 
teach it, are essential qualifications in a teacher. 

Teachers should likewise be well versed in his- 
tory, especially that of the United States. This 
will qualify you to select such parts as will be 
useful to the scholars, and to present to their 
minds the importance of the subject. If yoti are 
pleased and familiar with history, you may make 
it an intensely interesting study in your school. 
Every American youth should know the history 
and present condition of his country ; but more 
especially should every teacher of American 
youth. 

But you may be well acquainted with these 
branches, and yet not prepared to teach. There 

E 



50 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

are many things absolutely necessary for a teacher 
besides knowledge. To teach is to impart know- 
ledge to others ; and you need the power of im- 
parting as much as you do the knowledge itself, 
A teacher should be able to communicate his ideas 
to others with ease and perspicuity. Your suc- 
cess will depend in a great measure on this 
power ; if you have it not, all the learning of the 
ancients and moderns will not fit you for a teacher. 
Yet you should remember, that this faculty of 
communicating what we know is mostly an ac- 
quired one, and may be had, to a great degree, by 
all who wish it. This qualification, which is of 
such immense importance, is possessed but by a 
very few teachers. There are many more of those 
who have the necessary knowledge, than of those 
who have the capabilities to teach it. The power 
of telling what they have heard or have been 
reading, the faculty of communicating their ideas 
to others in an easy, clear, perspicuous manner, 
but very few have, whether educated in the dis- 
trict school, the college, or the professional semi- 
nary. This great defect (worse, I was about to 
say, than ignorance itself, for it makes us assume 
the appearance of being very learned, when in 
reality we can think, or tell, but very little) pro- 
ceeds from the bad systems of instruction. 

Teachers, with other students, are made mere 
reservoirs, into which a little learning is poured, 
but from which there is no outlet ; or if there 
should be one, it is not a pure flowing stream, but 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 51 

an ill-seamed, struggling leak. The little that oozes 
out is a disgrace to the fountain, and a disappoint- 
ment to reasonable expectations. We should 
make the knowledge which we merely look at, and 
pass by, a part of our own minds ; it should be in- 
corporated with, and become a part of our intel- 
lectual existence. Then, if we have the organs of 
speech, and a motive, there will be no hesitation, 
nor stammering, nor circumlocution, nor words 
without meaning. If we have an idea, we can 
impart it. We deceive ourselves when we apolo- 
gize for our faulty expressions, by saying, " I know 
well enough, but I can't tell it." The fact is, we 
do not know ; if we did, there never would be an 
occasion for such an apology. Now it will not do 
for teachers to make this confession to their pupils, 
and therefore they are obliged to say something ; 
but you should know that it is easy to talk about 
every thing and yet say nothing. 

There is no other class of men in society who 
need the faculty of communicating knowledge 
so much as teachers ; especially common school 
teachers. They are acting upon minds which are 
extremely limited ; having but a very few ideas, 
and almost entirely unacquainted with the relations 
of things. They cannot get the meaning by hints, 
and inferences, and equivocal, half-expressions, as 
more mature minds may do, by close attention, 
and with some knowledge of the speaker's phrase- 
ology. No, you must speak the whole of it to 
children, with nothing more nor less, and in their 



52 DISTRICT SCHOOL 

own idiom. With children, you have not intelli- 
gent minds to supply the want of intelligence ; all 
that is perceived by them must be contained in the 
teacher's communication. It will now be acknow- 
ledged that teachers, more than any other class of 
men, need the faculty of transferring into other 
minds what may be worthy of existing in their 
own. A teacher should make it his unceasing 
study to acquire this power. He may obtain it 
by practice. If he will arrange his ideas, .and 
connect them with proper words, and frequently 
express them, he will soon acquire the ability. 
And it will make a new man of any one ; he will 
then feel and know his strength, 



SECTION III. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS CONTINUED. 

A teacher, besides possessing the requisite 
knowledge, and the ability of communicating it to 
others, should have a good moral character. His 
morals will be the standard by which the scholars 
will compare and regulate theirs. His conduct 
and deportment will be constantly before them ; and 
from the respect he ought to have from his pupils, 
Ms life will be the model which they will imitate. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 53 

The teacher's sentiments, opinions, and even man- 
ners, will insensibly become the sentiments, opin- 
ions, and manners of the scholars. They will feel 
a full license to do whatever the teacher does. 
His actions will be appealed to as a justification 
of their own ; and whatever the teacher considers 
right or wrong, will be considered as right or 
wrong by the scholars. The teacher's actions are 
under the eye of the children, and his mind, 
thoughts, and feelings by the side of theirs, more 
than any other individual's ; whatever he may be, 
he will be sure to stamp his likeness with more or 
less faithfulness upon the minds of every one of 
his scholars. A teacher may, and generally will, 
mould the conformable, imitative mind of the child 
into his own image. To a great extent our teachers 
give us our character. If this be so (and we think 
no one will doubt it who has either observed or 
reflected), what is more important than a good 
moral character in a teacher ! 

Parents, if such a character is of any importance 
in your children, it is of just as much importance 
in their teachers. You must expect to see the 
same virtues or vices, and particularly the latter 
(for children, as well as those who are older, copy 
the evil of others with much more readiness and 
faithfulness than they do the good), taking root, 
and springing up into action in your children, that 
you see in their teacher. And, respected instructer, 
if you feel (and you should understand this matter) 
that your doctrines and practice are not right, Oh* 
E2 



54 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

think of the consequence of your unhappy influence ! 
Think of your responsibilities ! Think of what 
will be required at your hands ! 

A teacher should govern himself. In this con- 
sists the great art of governing others. We lose 
all authority over others when we lose command 
of ourselves. The disloyalty of our passions re- 
quires a closer inspection and a stronger guard 
than any official government : and to rule your 
own spirit you will find much more difficult than 
the control of others. You will meet with many 
things which are keenly provocative ; but always 
keep a close watch over yourself, and let nothing 
throw you off from your guard ; let your judgment 
advise and control all your actions. If you will 
govern yourself, you will have a good government 
in your school. I never knew a teacher who was 
troubled in managing his scholars, that did not first 
lose the government of himself. All of those re- 
bellious school farces, where teacher and scholar 
have tried their strength for mastery, commenced 
from some weakness or indiscretion on the part of 
the teacher. A man that has the strength of the law 
and of right, and a perfect command of himself will 
have his authority acknowledged, and his govern- 
ment respected. 

There is no employment in which the aid of a 
good judgment is more essential than in the teach- 
er's ; I mean the teachers of common schools. In 
all our incorporated academies, colleges, and semi- 
naries, there are laws prescribing the duties of the 



DISTRICT SCHOOI,. 55 

instructers and the conduct of the pupils. These 
laws are drawn up by learned, experienced men ; 
men who are not local, acting officers of the institu- 
tion, but warm friends and general supervisors : 
the instructers must be directed by these laws, and 
require their obedience from the students. Now, 
there is no such supervision from the experienced 
and learned over the common school and its 
teacher ; the instructers in these schools are their 
own legislators, judiciary, and executive ; they 
publish their own laws to the colony, and they ac- 
cuse, pass sentence, and punish. The professor 
of a college is not allowed to make his laws — he 
is not permitted to punish in case of their viola- 
tion, but is obliged to report the offender and the 
offence to the president or the board of managers ; 
they are neither legislative, judiciary, nor execu- 
tive : but why ? because they are not as fit for 
these offices as common school teachers? This 
certainly is not the reason. Is it because the laws 
of a college are more numerous and difficult ? Is 
it because the government of the educated is more 
difficult than the government of the uneducated ? 
Certainly not. The rules and regulations of a 
primary or district school are as numerous (and 
require more ingenuity in adapting them to the 
young minds and restless bodies of the children) 
as the laws of a college ; and the pupils of a dis- 
trict school have generally lived without rule and 
restraint, and are certainly less prepared to per- 
ceive what is right and what is wrong, and conse- 



56 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

quently must be more controlled by the rules and 
regulations of the institution than the educated f 

Why, then,are these departments of government 
taken away from professors ? The reason is, because 
it is much better to have them in the hands of 
others, or, in other words, to have the assistance, 
counsel, and advice of others' experience and learn- 
ing; but the common school teacher has all the 
professor's difficulties and labours, but none of his 
aids ; neither in the form of wise directions, drawn 
up by others, nor in the judiciary of wise, experi- 
enced supervisors. The common schoolteacher is 
left alone: his will the law ; his nod the sentence ; 
and his arm the executioner. Say, then, does not a 
common school teacher need a good judgment? 
it is the only thing that will ensure justice ; it is 
the only restraint which ignorance, and rashness, 
and cruelty have : the teacher has no other aid in 
discovering guilt and in prescribing punishment ; 
it is the only thing that directs unlimited power ; 
and if this is wanting, where can we look for a 
greater tyrant than the common school teacher 
may become ? 

A teacher should have an even, uniform temper. 
Without this qualification, there will be at one 
time too much harshness and severity, and at 
another time too much playfulness and lenity. At 
one time the pupils will fear and tremble under the 
rage of passion, and at another time destroy all 
order by unbounded liberties. The teacher should 
always be mild, calm, and collected — never moved 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 57 

or excited into an improper state of feeling, but 
always serene and pleasant before his pupils ; and 
at all other times, if possible. How often is heard 
the admonitory whisper, " Look out, the master is 
cross to-day ;" and how often, too, do the scholars 
take the advantage of extreme good-nature, and 
have a real good hour of fun. Scholars watch the 
mercury of the teacher's feelings as closely as they 
do his eye ; and they know when the former will 
give them liberties as certainly as they do when the 
latter will. This changeableness of temper is at- 
tended with serious evils. If a pupil is punished, 
he will think that it happened because the " master 
was mad." If the scholar is accused of a bad reci- 
tation, he will say, " The master was techy enough 
to-day, and dreadfully particular." If the teacher 
has an uneven temper, the scholar will be sure, 
whatever maybe his deficiencies and commissions, 
to justify himself, and to make the teacher the cause 
of all the trouble. For uniformity of obedience 
in the school, and for the teacher's own com- 
fort, an even uniform temper will always be ne- 
cessary. 

A teacher should have decision and firm- 
ness. He should be able to decide upon the ex- 
pediency or inexpediency of the act, or request, 
and then remain firm in his decision. I know of 
nothing which gives teachers so much trouble as 
this want of firmness. A request is negatived, but 
close importunity gets an affirmative* This tho 



58 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

scholars understand ; and they know that a denial 
only produces a short delay, and are careful to 
give the teacher no peace, till vexation obtains 
what justice refused. Children are full of whims 
and notions, and will always be seeking permission 
to gratify them ; and unless the teacher has firm- 
ness to set them aside at once, he may expect. to 
be always pestered with them. Uncertainty re- 
specting the teacher's acquiescence or refusal, will 
greatly increase the restless disposition of children ; 
but when there is firmness and uniformity in the 
teacher, the pupils can determine beforehand what 
the issue would be, and therefore their requests are 
seldom and reasonable. 

I know of nothing that throws such darkness 
over the line which separates right from wrong, 
as this deviation and mutability in the teacher. 
It also annuls all the teacher's regulations ; for the 
pupils are never certain whether they will be en- 
forced or not ; and so pay little or no regard to 
them. A uniform, undeviating government, for 
two weeks, would establish regulations in a school 
which would always after, without any inquiry or 
dissent, regulate the conduct and desires of the 
scholars. But without this stability there are no 
fixed, known laws to guide them, and the pupils 
are continually applying to the teacher. If the 
teacher will decide on his government, and then 
remain firm, he will have but very little to do 
in governing ; for the government of a previous 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 59 

day will be all that is necessary for the present 
one. 

The teacher should be qualified to- sympathize 
with his pupils. He should be able tp feel as they 
feel, and to think as they think. He should be able 
to put his head and his heart by the side of theirs, 
and rejoice and labour with them. There should 
be mutual feeling between, teacher and pupil, and 
this cannot be without sympathizing with each 
other. There should be such a sympathy on the 
part of the teacher with the child's feelings and 
operations of mind, that he will be able to take the 
pupil's place, and stand himself a learner with the 
scholar, and make his knowledge the teacher. 

It is known that children learn from each other 
with much more readiness and facility than they 
do from adults. The reason is, the one who in- 
structs adapts himself and his manner of teaching 
to the state of mind which is in the learner. If 
teachers, with all their advantage of knowledge, 
would become children when they instruct chil- 
dren, they would make better teachers than the 
pupils could select from their own number. But 
adult teachers are generally so unlike children, — 
there is so little resemblance between them, and 
such a broad distinction between their operations 
of mind and feelings, that there is not much sym- 
pathy for each other ; and less fitness in the in- 
structions of the teacher to the attainments and 
capacities of the scholar. 

It should be the constant aim of the instructer 



80 SHSTRtCT SCHOOL. 

to place himself in the condition of his pupils. To 
do this he must cultivate his imagination and his 
sympathetic emotions. He must come down 
where his pupils are, and walk in the twilight with 
them, and feel their difficulties, and use their means 
to surmount them. In a word, he must be the 
teacher of the school, and yet a learner and a 
member of each class. Who is there that needs 
more imagination and sympathy than the teacher 
of children? Without a large portion of these, 
who can be a good teacher ? To find out what 
children know, to think in the manner they think, 
and to feel as they feel, we must listen to their 
conversations with each other ; observe the lan- 
guage of feeling ; and reflect upon the accounts 
they give of the events they have witnessed, and 
their descriptions of objects which have taken the 
attention. We must also free them from all re- 
straint, and talk with them about the things in their 
world. We must be their citizens, their compan- 
ions, — rejoice when they rejoice, weep when they 
weep, and at the same time be changing them from 
darkness to light ; from the littleness of children to 
the greatness of men. 

A teacher should be able to discriminate charac- 
ter^ and see the differences between his pupils. In 
his school there will be no two alike ; no two who 
will require the same treatment, or the same man- 
ner of instructing. Hence the necessity of dis- 
criminating, that he may adapt himself to the indi- 
vidual peculiarities and capacities of each. This 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 61 

diversity of character and intelligence, arises from 
a different physical organization, from different 
treatment and instruction when at home with their 
companions and parents, and from a great diversity 
of other causes which never have been noticed. 
These circumstances make each individual a dif- 
ferent being for the teacher to become acquainted 
with. It is true that all children have many things 
in common; yet it is as true that each pupil has 
something, and a something ivhich the teacher must 
understand, that is unlike any other individual. 
The teacher's business is not so much to inquire 
into the causes of these peculiarities, as it is to 
study them. There is as great a variety in the 
minds of your pupils, as there is in their faces; 
and, after a little discrimination, it will be -sis per- 
ceptible. 

Teachers usually have but one government for 
every scholar in school. The timid, sensitive pupil 
receives the same treatment that the fearless and 
the obdurate do ; and the dull and inattentive the 
same instruction with the sprightly and diligent 
The child that should be won with tenderness and 
affection, is crushed with harshness and tyranny ; 
and the pupil who is daringly vicious and imper- 
tinent, has not a tighter rein than the well-disposed 
and obedient. The pupil who is without restraint 
at home, controlled neither by parents, friends, 
nor conscience, the teacher attempts to govern by 
the same means which should be used over those 
who are obedient to their parents, and generally 

F 



62 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

correct in their conduct. He does not perceive 
the government that is necessary for the scholar 
in school, from the nature of that which he is under 
while out. No ; it often happens that the most 
amiable and the most unamiable, the obedient and 
the disobedient, those of almost intuitive perceptions 
and the dull and the stupid, are brought under the 
same form of government, and the same method of 
instruction ! The result is, that the teacher finds 
that his government and punishments do not answer 
their end, and his pupils are not benefited by his in- 
structions. They have not been such as their pe- 
culiar dispositions and capacities required. The 
pupil, who with proper management would have 
been an excellent scholar, is now marked out as a 
dunce ; and he who would have been submissive 
and obedient, is now sent from school as irre- 
claimable. 

This is the lamentable consequence of not dis- 
criminating character and mental abilities. O how 
much do teachers need this power ! Who can 
be a fit teacher without this qualification ! Then, 
let every teacher acquire this discriminating 
power and use it. 

A teacher should be able to illustrate and sim- 
plify. Many of the elementary books which have 
appeared within two or three years have done 
much to make the studies of children attractive 
and intelligible ; yet simple, familiar illustration 
from the teacher is required in every step of the 
scholar's progress. The book alone will be of little 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 63 

value to the pupil ; it must be accompanied with 
the living voice ; and this voice should create an 
understanding between the child's mind and the 
book. The teacher should illustrate whatever the 
pupil may be attending to in a variety of ways ; 
he should show the connexion which the lesson 
has to other branches of knowledge, and he should 
be able to apply the lesson to the objects or busi- 
ness the pupil is acquainted with. 

The greatest truth may be made level with the 
capacities of the younger pupils, if the teacher is 
apt in his comparisons and illustrations : the most 
abstract truth may be invested with magical at- 
tractions, if the teacher is familiar with the subject, 
and sees its intimate and harmonious relations 
which run through all the living and visible crea- 
tion. The same truths may be put into a thousand 
child-like forms, yet not adulterated nor divested 
of their power ; and this the teacher should study to 
do by a beautiful simplicity in his language and 
ideas. By luminous ^lustrations he may make 
truth as cheering and nourishing to the soul as 
light is to the eye, or the " spirit-giving air ;> to the 
lungs ; he may make the exercise of learning 
something new, the most delightful employment 
for the pupil that this world will ever give. 

O why is it that children " go tardily to school V f 
Why is it that they dislike instruction ? They were 
made to know and to learn from others : — it is be- 
cause they are not taught as nature teaches, — 
simply, variedly, pleasantly: the great teacher of 



64 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

teachers should be Nature : let them watch her 
pouring light arid truth into the infant mind, and 
learn a lesson which no other can teach. 

Teachers must be well acquainted with the 
studies before they can possess this simplicity: the 
most learned men are always the most simple ; the 
half-educated are those who make a pompous 
parade of long words and intricate unmeaning sen- 
tences. The man who is master of his subject is 
plain, pure, and perspicuous in his style, and always 
luminous and eloquent in thought: but none need 
this purity and simplicity of language and thought 
so much as the common school instructer ; he is in 
a mental world, which is fresh from the Creator, 
and with narrow boundaries ; — he is where the 
world with all its duplicity and error has not yet 
intruded ; he is in that young and small part where 
truth and simplicity dwell ; and he should be like 
his citizens. 

O ! it has made my heart pity human weakness, 
to see a conceited, pomypus, arrogant man, the 
teacher and associate of children; I would that 
. such might learn that true greatness does not con- 
sist in appearing what they are not; nor in their 
ridiculous formality and magisterial bearing. The 
teacher, from always being the oracle of his so- 
ciety, is very apt to form such manners. Let me 
say to all such, get your scholars' respect and 
affection by honesty, simplicity, and truth; and 
not by attempting the "unheard-of and the won* 
derful." 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 65 



SECTION IV. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS CONCLUDED. 

Teachers should love their business. To suc- 
ceed in any art or profession, we must give to it 
all our energies, thoughts, and sympathies. But 
this we will not do except we love this art or pro- 
fession. A teacher will have to make many sacri- 
fices ; he will meet with trying difficulties, and he 
will have to be indefatigable in his labours. Now 
unless he loves his employment, he will be of all 
men the most miserable, and will, as soon as pos- 
sible, engage in something else. 

I can scarcely conceive of a more unhappy 
man, than a district school teacher, who heartily 
dislikes his business ; and I know not of a more 
useless one. He dreads the hour when he will be 
obliged to meet his thirty or forty cares and 
troubles. He is wearied with impatience for the 
moment when he can send them from him ; and 
then is glad the task is done. But the morrow 
presents the same miserable prospect, and he 
enters upon his duties loathingly, and with sickness 
of heart. 

No teacher can make his school pleasant, and 
his scholars contented and happy, unless he loves 
F2 



66 BISTRICT SCHOOL 

to teach. If he is restless and unhappy, his pupils 
will be so. But if he is happy, and delighted with 
teaching, he will make others happy, and delighted 
with learning. If he has a glad heart, and a smil- 
ing countenance when he meets his pupils in the 
school-room, they will love the place, and rejoice 
to meet him there. 

Teachers should make their business their study. 
This will be necessary if they wish to make their 
profession honourable, and themselvesrespected and 
useful. You cannot do justice to your scholars, 
nor to your employment, without devoting to them 
all your time and study. They demand all your 
resources, and all your energies. 

You should be constantly inquiring into your 
own deficiencies ; you should be studying the 
characters and dispositions of your pupils ; you 
should keep a close eye upon their progress ; you 
should examine your system of teaching, and your 
form of government ; and you should be continually 
watching to see where you come short, and might 
improve. It should be your study to know how 
children learn, and to look into the operations of the 
developing mind. You should desire to become 
acquainted with children and youth, and know 
how they think, and how to make them think. You 
should learn their history, and their privileges and 
government out of school ; and it should be your 
constant aim and effort to understand your busi- 
ness. To this end, you should seek the society 
and experience of aged teachers ; you should pos- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 67 

sess and peruse with care the books and periodicals 
which throw light on the subject of education. At 
the present day, a few eminent writers and distin- 
guished instructers are devoting their learning, ex- 
perience, and talents to the improvement of ele- 
mentary schools. Your library should contain 
their works ; and if they expose evils, and suggest 
remedies, you should see the former and apply the 
latter. 

I know of no periodical that is so valuable to 
the teacher as the " Annals of Education and In- 
struction," published at Boston, and edited by Wil- 
liam C. Woodbridge. This work is the organ of 
the "American Lyceum," the "American Insti- 
tute," and the " American School Society." The 
object of each of these societies is the diffusion of 
knowledge, and the improvement of schools. Mr. 
Woodbridge's periodical, then, is the great national 
depository of the light and information that is 
made known on the subject of education. Mr. 
Woodbridge is w T ell prepared to conduct such a 
national work. He spent several years in Europe 
for the purpose of becoming acquainted with her 
literary institutions, and the improvements which 
had been made in their systems of education. After 
returning, he chose the "Annals of Education" as 
an organ through which he might make known 
the information he had obtained in Europe, and 
the condition and improvements of the schools in 
the United States. Every teacher and friend of 



68 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

education should avail himself of the aid and in- 
formation which this work affords. 

Books and periodicals of this kind should be the 
study of teachers. You should know the state of 
intelligence in your own country, the condition and 
number of its schools, and the character and quali- 
fications of their teachers. You should study to 
distinguish between a change and an improvement ; 
for every change is by no means a reformation. 
You should be so familiar with your profession as 
to prevent impositions, either in the shape of books 
or projected systems. You should study the 
human mind, and know for yourself what is 
adapted to it, and what is not ; and then be ready 
to admit such suggestions as correspond with your 
enlightened understanding. 

A lawyer, a physician, or a divine has to 
spend several years in preparing for the practice 
of their profession ; and after they are admitted, 
or licensed, they must make their profession their 
study, if they ever attain any degree of eminence. 
A teacher's profession is the most difficult of the 
four ; and he should avail himself of all the help he 
can get, both from the studies and the experience 
of others. Teachers also should study to obtain the 
co-operation of parents and other intelligent indi- 
viduals, who may reside in the district, or within the 
circle of their acquaintance. Make the learning 
and the information of all to assist you in your 
difficult profession ; study to make improvements 
in the art of teaching, and give yourself up entirely 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 69 

to your profession. You see there is enough to do, 
enough to occupy all your time and all your 
powers ; then let me say again, make your business 
your study. 

Teachers should be patient and persevering. 
I know of no other employment in which these 
qualities are more essential. To travel with the 
young and feeble intellect, with all its obtuseness 
and waywardness, requires a large share of pa- 
tience ; but if you grow impatient, and quicken 
your progress, you will # leave your pupils behind, 
to wander without a guide, and in a strange coun- 
try. No, you must be willing to take as short steps 
as they take, and to look at every object as though 
you never saw it before ; you must be willing to 
go again and again where you have gone a thou- 
sand times before ; and you must not let familiarity 
make you indifferent, but must preserve all the 
freshness and novelty of your first journey; for 
your young company will observe and learn no- 
thing but what you feel a deep interest in. The 
path, too, that the Abecedarian has to tread is long 
and rugged ; and unless you have an unconquera- 
ble perseverance, you will not be disposed to con- 
tinue his companion. 

After we have mastered any point, it is difficult 
for us to see why it does not appear as clear and 
easy to others as it does to ourselves; and you 
will need patience to make many repetitions and 
many illustrations which will be dry and tedious 
to you, but absolutely necessary to the learner. 



70 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

Children are apt to be impatient under restraint, 
and discouraged with difficulties, — the teacher 
should possess the opposite qualities for their imita- 
tion : the pupils should see in his conduct that perse- 
verance conquers all things ; that nothing is denied 
to well-directed labour; and that if any one will 
wait long enough, he will obtain his object. 

He who engages in teaching should be qualified 
to overcome the difficulties of his profession. There 
are many trying difficulties peculiar to the district 
school teacher; but these he must be able to sur- 
mount: he will meet with many parents who are 
criminally indifferent to the education of their chil- 
dren. This apathy or indifference he will have to 
encounter under a variety of forms. Many parents 
have not been educated to the love of knowledge, 
and therefore do not think it very important for 
their children ; they do not set a good example for 
their offspring, by taking every opportunity to im- 
prove their own minds, and to point out the ad- 
vantages of a good education ; and the children 
suppose there is no very great necessity for at- 
tending to the instructions of the teacher ; so, in- 
stead of having the co-operation of parents, the 
teacher will have to labour against their uninten- 
tional' bad influence. 

The teacher will find some of his employers un- 
able to appreciate his faithfulness and his daily 
sacrifices : he will be obliged to toil without their 
sympathy, and frequently without their respect. 
This he must not only put up with, but must make 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 71 

extra efforts to supply the parents' deficiencies. 
The attendance of the scholars will be irregular ; 
and the school badly provided with necessary ap- 
paratus ; the teacher must expect to labour under 
these disadvantages. The school-house may be un- 
pleasantly located and badly constructed ; it may 
be in a very uncomfortable condition, the windows 
broken, the door off from the hinges, the roof open 
and leaky, the floor and benches broken, and the 
stove or fireplace filling the cramped and crowded 
room with smoke ; this he must endure in many 
instances until he can prevail on his employers to 
make a change. 

He will find that the scholars have been super- 
ficially taught ; that they have been badly gov- 
erned, that they are in wretched habits, both in 
acquiring and reciting their lessons ; and that they 
are averse to systematic and close application. 
These obstacles he will have to oppose and over- 
come. The scholars will not be furnished with 
appropriate books ; those they have are either too 
elevated for their capacities, and will require con- 
stant explanation, or so old and familiar that they 
have ceased to excite any interest. From a want 
of books, he will not be able to classify his pupils, 
and will be obliged to attend to them separately : 
this deficiency and unsuitableness in books will 
cause the teacher much perplexity and additional 
labour; but this he must be qualified to do and 
prepared to endure. 

He will find many things requiring his attention 



72 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

at the same time ; some requesting privileges and 
others assistance ; some covertly in mischief, and 
others disposed to be idle. He must hear and see, 
and do and consent, and refuse and keep order, 
and give instruction in almost the same moment. 
He must have the most rapid despatch, yet 
thoroughness and calmness ; the greatest versa- 
tility of mind, yet strength and clearness. Such 
will be the demands on a teacher ; and these he 
must be willing and able to conform to. The 
teacher will meet with parents who are partial 
and full of whims and unreasonable desires. To 
such he must be firm ; it will not do to humour 
them, and yet it will be desirable to please them. 
He will need much tact and much management ; 
he must have a good share of independence, and 
pursue a just, straight-forward course : to do this at 
all times, he will find difficult ; but the requirement 
is necessarily connected with his office. 

Accompanying your labours, there will be con- 
tinued monotony and sameness. This you must 
expect, from the nature of your employment. 
The advancement of the pupils must be slow, and 
the younger going over the same ground that has 
just been travelled by the more advanced. This 
want of variety will be unpleasant, and you will 
have to free yourself of all mechanical operations, 
k and seize upon all the interest and variety that 
the cultivation of the mind will admit of. If you 
have a good share of ingenuity, and love your 
business, this monotony will almost disappear ; but 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 73 

if your own mind is barren, and unable to find 
amusement in the union of truth with the intel- 
lectual faculties, you will meet with a weary 
sameness. 

You will have to guard against the effect which 
the constant intercourse with minds far inferior will 
have upon your own mind. In school you are the 
criterion and the oracle, — your word is law, and 
none dare dissent, — your reasons are given, and 
never disputed, — you are the speaker, and no one 
objects or interrupts. Now, you must be watchful 
that you are not as authoritative and dogmatical 
out of school, as you must be (to a certain degree) 
in school. After men have lived the life of a teacher 
for three or four years, they are not commonly very 
agreeable companions. The nature of their busi- 
ness has produced this unhappy effect ; and you 
will be wise in bringing all your powers to bear 
against this influence. You should frequently 
measure your mind with your equals, and always 
treat your pupils as intelligent beings ; as if they 
had a sense of right and wrong, and a perception 
of truth and falsehood. And, finally, you must ex- 
pect much ingratitude and small compensation. 
And you must be prepared to forgive the one, and 
live upon the other. 

These are a few of the difficulties which a 
teacher must meet with, but which he must be 
qualified to overcome. He will need a good share 
of common sense ; a strong, well-furnished mind ; 
a constant watch over his feelings, and a strong 

G 



74 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

guard against his habits. Let every candidate 
inquire whether or not he has these qualifications? 
before he assumes that office which will certainly 
demand them. 

A teacher should always appear pleasant and 
affectionate. He should make the scholars feel 
that he is seeking their good, and that he desires 
their happiness. This will be necessary to win 
their confidence and their affections. Without 
these he will labour in vain, and in misery. But 
if he is pleasant and agreeable to the children, 
they will love to be with him, and to hear 
his instructions. The love they have for the 
teacher will be transferred to the studies he 
teaches, and the acquisition of knowledge may be 
made a constant amusement from the manner it 
is taught. 

A teacher, likewise, should be qualified to show 
his pupils the importance of knowledge. We are 
all very unwilling to make strong exertions for 
that of which we cannot see the use or value; 
and we are very dilatory in acquiring that 
which does not give immediate enjoyment, or by 
which we are not in some way immediately bene- 
fited. How much more disinclined and dilatory 
are children, who are unable to perceive the nature 
and relations of things. They cannot see the ne- 
cessity, or the advantages, or the pleasures of 
knowledge ; and what incentives have they to 
make its acquisition ? Now, it is necessary that 
the teacher should supply, to some extent, what 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 75 

their ignorance shuts out. He should show them 
the power that knowledge has given to the human 
race, — the liberty that it has given to nations, — 
the glory and dignity with which it has invested 
the human mind, — the comforts, conveniences, and 
pleasures it has conferred on society, and the 
respect and influence it gives to individuals, A 
perception of some of these grand results (even if 
it should be a faint one) will give them a foretaste, 
and a determination, which will ensure high at- 
tainments. It will make his scholars regard the 
means of cultivating the mind their highest privi- 
lege and their greatest blessing. Teachers, then, 
should not only possess, and be qualified to impart 
knowledge to their pupils, but they should be able 
to make them feel its value. 



' SECTION V, 

< TKE ADAPTATION AND IMPORTANCE OF COMMON 
SCHOOLS, AND THE DUTIES OF THOSE WHO HAVE 
A GENERAL SUPERINTENDENCE OVER THEM, 

I know not that a better plan could be devised 
for educating the people, than the one adopted by 
the state of New- York, It carries the means of 
instruction to the door of ^very citizen ; and on 



76 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the universality of these means of instruction is 
based the greatness and permanency of our free 
institutions. 

We shall see that this system is wisely adapted 
to the wants of the people, when we consider that 
the great proportion of the children which it edu- 
cates must be instructed while they are at home, 
connected with their parents or guardians. The 
children and youth require the guardianship of the 
parental eye ; and the parents need the assistance 
of their children during those parts of the day 
they are not engaged in the school. But few 
parents, likewise, if they could spare their chil- 
dren, would be able to support them at public 
institutions. Hence the necessity of devising a 
system which shall afford the means of instruction 
to every individual, — that shall leave the children 
under the parental care, and permit them to continue 
to render some assistance to their parents, — that shall 
be fitted to give that kind and degree of instruction 
which the citizens need, — and that the system be so 
cheap and simple that the people will be wealthy 
and wise enough to support and regulate it. The 
system of district schools, when properly applied 
and supported, is found to have this wise adapta- 
tion and happy influence. It is this system which 
carries intelligence and liberty through the Union, 

The importance of good common or district 
schools is seen and felt but by few. The necessity 
of virtue and intelligence among a free people is 
always admitted ; yet the great majority of our 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 77 

citizens are almost wholly indifferent to the primary 
schools, the very sources of a nation's intelligence; 
for, as it is well known, nineteen citizens out of 
twenty receive all their education in them. Even 
reflecting men seldom look so near the beginning 
of things as to see that the blessings and perpetuity 
of our happy government are in the hands and 
under the direction of the common schoolmaster. 
In our common schools the nation receives its 
character and education. Mothers and school- 
masters sow the seeds either of tyranny, anarchy, 
or liberty ; for the strength and destiny of any 
community lies in the virtue and intelligence of 
its younger members. A wise and good govern- 
ment can be established and sustained only by the 
wise and good ; and if the teachers in our common 
schools are ignorant and vicious, they can impart 
nothing but what they have, and the youthful part 
of the nation must be like them : but if they are 
wise and good, the character of the people will be 
the same. In our common schools, our ministers 
and magistrates, legislators and presidents, com- 
menced their education. Here did the men whom 
we admire as the strength and beauty of our na- 
tion receive their first impressions, their first prin- 
ciples, and their first character. In these schools 
did the men to whom we look up for counsel and 
instruction commence their moral and intellectual 
greatness; and in these primary founts of know T - 
ledge are placed those who will perpetuate or de- 

G2 



78 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

stroy all that is excellent and beautiful in this young 
republic. 

Is not the condition and character of our com- 
mon schools, then, of the highest importance? Are 
not the character and qualifications of their teachers 
of the very first consideration ? These schools 
have in embryo the future communities of this 
land. With them the empire and liberty of these 
States. must rise or fall ; for they are at once the 
repositories of freedom, and the pillars of the re- 
public. And now, we again ask, are not these 
schools of the highest importance? Should not 
every individual feel the deepest interest in their 
character and condition? Should not the strong 
arm of government be thrown around them for a 
protection ? And should not the wisdom of legis- 
lation watch over and counsel them with a pa- 
rental solicitude ? To what purpose shall we en- 
act laws, unless there is intelligence to perceive 
their justice, and principle to which they can ap- 
peal ? And what other fountains of intelligence 
have we for the whole people, but our common 
schools? But do these schools receive that close 
attention, that friendly aid, that enlightened and 
fostering care, which their high importance de- 
mands? Our representatives in legislation have 
done well, but as individuals we do nothing ! Our 
intelligent men appear as if our individual happi- 
ness, and the glory and prosperity of this nation 
rested rather in our constitutions, revenues, and 
armies, than in the virtue and intelligence of the 



BIStfRtCT SCHOOL. 79 

Whole people. And how often do philanthropists 
forget that the chief part of human vice is evidently- 
founded on the predominance of the sensual over 
the moral and intellectual nature ! 

The learned and leading men in nearly every 
section of the United States overlook the common 
school, and give all of their attention, influence, and 
pecuniary support to select schools, academies, 
colleges, and seminaries. These men seldom in- 
quire into the character or capacity of the teacher 
of the district-school: not giving these schools 
their patronage, they feel entirely indifferent to 
their condition. The teacher, consequently, is se- 
lected by the ignorant ; and the whole management 
of the school left to the direction of the careless and 
illiterate. The uninformed part of the district 
know not the proper qualifications of a teacher, or 
the value of an education ; and therefore a man of 
but very limited acquirements, and probably of 
many forbidding qualities, and without the least 
aptitude to teach, is often employed to impart char- 
acter and education to the children. What may we 
expect the teacher to be when chosen by such 
men ! What efficiency can we look for in the 
school, when the careless and the ignorant have the 
whole direction ! 

These schools, then, should have the superintend- 
ence of the learned and leading men ; they should 
assist in making choice of the teacher ; they should 
give the teacher their co-operation, and encourage 
him by their attention and their patronage. This 



80 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

more favoured part of the community should feel 
that they have a duty to perform towards the less 
favoured; and that the blessings of society are 
multiplied by affording the means of moral and 
intellectual instruction to every individual. The 
learned and wealthy should perceive that the edu- 
cation of the infant mind is far less expensive to 
them than the support of the aged criminal ; that 
the fruitfulness of their lands depends not so much 
upon the richness of the soil as upon the intelli- 
gence of the cultivators ; and that the labour of 
him whose head can help his hands is far more 
profitable than the service of the ignorant. The 
learned and wealthy should see likewise that uni- 
versal education is the only true security of life 
and property. 

Learned and influential men may do much for 
common schools, by encouraging qualified teachers, 
and by obtaining for them public assistance. They 
may give their respect and lend their influence to 
the profession of teaching, and by this means make 
it more reputable and lucrative than it is at present. 
They may give interest and assistance to institu- 
tions and associations which are intended to qualify 
teachers and diffuse knowledge ; and they may 
see that legislation does all that it can do for such 
schools. 

The duties of Inspectors are very important to 
common schools. As the character and usefulness 
of the schools depend upon the qualifications of 
the teachers, the inspectors should be strict in their 
examinations, and well assured of the competency 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 81 

of those who receive certificates. In organizing 
the school system, inspectors were appointed to 
prevent the disqualified from entering into the 
responsible profession of teaching. They are to 
judge what candidates are prepared for instruct- 
ing ; and to admit none but such as are qualified. 
Thus the character of the district schools is placed 
almost entirely in their hands. It is in their power 
to admit none but such as promise to be useful in 
their vocation and honourable to their profession ; 
or, by being lax and faithless, to give certificates 
to those who have not one necessary qualification ; 
and who will, by attempting to discharge duties 
of which they are entirely ignorant, bring disgrace 
upon themselves and their employment. The lax- 
ity and ignorance of some inspectors is one great 
cause of the low and useless condition of many of 
our common schools. They have acted upon the 
principle that a poor school is better than none ; and 
thus have given their certificate to those who they 
were conscious were unqualified. Thus the candi- 
date's examination, under the board of inspectors, 
has frequently been little else than mere form and 
ceremony ; affording no obstacle to ignorance, and 
no measure for the discovery and encouragement 
of real merit. 

The inspectors are requested by the inhabitants 
of a certain district " to be lenient to such a candi- 
date, for he is a cousin, or can be hired cheap ; 
and although he has not much learning, he will do 
well enough for their children." The inspectors, 



82 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

acting upon their old principle, that a poor teacher 
is better than none ; and forgetting the high duties 
of their office, and the honour of that profession 
of which they are the guardians, listen to the 
request, and the disqualified candidate finds no 
difficulty in obtaining his certificate. This com- 
promise with ignorance and avarice on the part 
of inspectors, has placed men as teachers of our 
common schools who would not be trusted by 
their employers with a favourite horse. Such is 
the consequence of unfaithfulness among inspect- 
ors. Many of them should be far more rigid than 
they have heretofore been ; and they should rigidly 
and watchfully exercise the whole of their duties. 

They should not only ascertain the amount of 
knowledge that is requisite for a teacher, but should 
discover his powers of communicating to others 
the knowledge that he may possess. This latter 
qualification inspectors almost entirely overlook. 
But, as a teacher, it is certainly as important that 
he should be able to impart to others what he 
knows, as it is to be familiar with the branches 
which he is expected to teach. And he should be 
able, not only to communicate what he has ac- 
quired, but he should be able to communicate it to 
children. The teacher should be able to simplify 
and illustrate, and adapt his instructions to the 
infant mind. But whether the candidate has this 
necessary ability or not, the inspectors seldom 
ascertain. This is frequently found to be a serious 
neglect ; for teachers are often seen in our common 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 83 

schools who have sufficient knowledge of the ele- 
mentary branches which they teach, but who are 
wholly unqualified for giving instruction to others. 
The want of this qualification is a common defect 
among teachers ; and inspectors should be the 
more watchful over their applicants for certificates. 
Inspectors should ascertain whether the candidate 
is fond of the society of children and youth ; and 
whether he has studied the operations of the youth- 
ful mind, and found out how children think and 
learn. 

And, above all, they should know that the appli- 
cant possesses a good moral character. Many are 
admitted to teach in our primary schools, in con- 
sideration of their experience or high qualifications, 
who are well known to lead immoral lives, and to 
entertain and teach the very worst of principles. 
The highest qualifications should never procure a 
certificate when there is the least blemish on the 
moral character ; and the inspectors here should 
be firm, and require some knowledge of the candi- 
date's former life. I know not any duties more im- 
portant and responsible, in relation to district 
schools, than -those which belong to inspectors. 
But how often are they shamefully and criminally 
discharged ! If schools are as their teachers (and 
they certainly are), how strict should inspectors be 
in their examinations ! 

As the Trustees of a common school are local 
officers, living within the district, they have a close 
and continued superintendence over the school. 



84 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

Their duties are to employ a teacher, keep the 
school-house in repair, and supply it, or see that it is 
supplied, with all the necessaries which the comfort 
of the teacher and scholars may require. While 
they are in office, the immediate management of 
the school is put into their hands. If it is the voice 
of the district, it becomes the duty of the trustees 
to see that a proper teacher is constantly employed. 
They must judge of the applications of teachers, 
and refer the most promising to the inspectors. If 
the school should be vacant, and there should be 
no applications from teachers, it is the duty of the 
trustees to make it known abroad that an instructer 
is wanted in their district. It is also the business 
of the trustees to see that the school-house is of a 
proper size, in a good condition, and is comfortably 
furnished with fixtures, wood, and water. If any 
necessary should be wanting, they have the power, 
and it is their duty, to order it, and call upon the 
district for payment. The trustees should like- 
wise reconcile the difficulties which may arise 
between the teachers and scholars, or the teacher 
and the employers. The number of children in 
the district who draw public money must be made 
out by the trustees, and reported to the commis- 
sioners of common schools. These are some of 
the principal duties of the trustees of district 
schools. It can be seen, that they are of such im- 
portance that the manner in which they are dis- 
charged will greatly affect the interest and useful- 
ness of the school. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 85 

The trustees are the life of the school. If they 
are active, watchful, and faithful, the school will 
flourish ; but if they are irresolute and indifferent, 
the school will dwindle, and finally go down. The 
trustees should act in union, and with energy. But 
it unfortunately happens that this is not the case in 
every instance ; for it is frequently seen that they 
are far from being prompt and united in the dis- 
charge of their duties. They are often elected 
when absent, and probably are not informed of 
their important relation to the school till several 
months have passed by ; and then it is not unusual 
for them, through some personal pique, or the 
pressure of business, or the peculiar charac- 
ter of their colleagues, or some other excuse or 
whim, to object from serving. Thus the school for 
months, and very likely for a whole year, has no 
efficient overseer to apply to, either for wants or 
direction. Trustees frequently omit giving notice, 
or at least general notice, of their special or stated 
meetings ; and it is very often that these meetings 
are not attended by themselves. They frequently 
differ in their opinions respecting the character or 
wages of the teacher, and thus create a delay or a 
dissension which is of the greatest injury to the 
district. Sometimes they disagree on what are 
necessaries for the school ; and hence derange and 
almost destroy the organization of the school, by 
denying its reasonable requests. One trustee 
wants a cheap teacher, and a school one half of the 
year ; the others think that a well-qualified teacher, 

H 



86 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

although his wages are more, is the cheapest, and 
believe that the district will be none too wise if the 
school is continued through the year. The result 
of this division, very often, is the prevention of any 
school whatever for a long time. 

These are some of the evils which our schools 
suffer by having ignorant, faithless, and unreason- 
able trustees. Men who are appointed to exercise 
a fostering care over the school, prove themselves 
to be its worst enemies. The inhabitants of the 
district perceive that the affairs of the school want 
attending to, but know that it belongs to the trus- 
tees to see to them, and so find an excuse for their 
indifference. Thus the trustees, by their office, 
prevent others from doing what they themselves 
leave undone. It is far better that a school should 
have no such guardians, unless they are disposed 
to be united, faithful, and active. Poor schools 
are owing in a great measure to the want of good 
trustees, and every district should be solicitous 
whom they appoint. 

It is the duty of the Commissioners of common 
schools to return the reports of the trustees to the 
general superintendent, and to distribute the pub- 
lic money among the several districts of the town, 
according to the number of children in each whose 
age entitles them to draw. It is likewise their 
duty to determine the location of the school-house, 
when the inhabitants of the district do not agree ; 
and also to divide or unite districts which in their 
view may require such change. The com mis- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 87 

sioners and inspectors are, moreover, expected to 
pay frequent visits to the several schools of the 
town, and examine their condition, the faithfulness 
and ability of the teachers, and the progress which 
the children make in their studies. A faithful dis- 
charge of this latter duty would be of great benefit 
to our schools. I sincerely hope, that these re- 
spectable and important guardians of education 
will hereafter feel it their interest and their plea- 
sure to be more attentive to this momentous duty, 
which has been confided to their trust. 

Ministers, if they are disposed, may do much for 
our common schools. I know of no class of indi- 
viduals who have the power of doing more. But it is 
unfortunately the case, that ministers neglect to take 
that care of the education of the children in their 
congregation, which their duty and success de- 
mand. But few perceive that by the time the 
younger part of their flock receive years and 
knowledge sufficient to be profited by their ser- 
mons, the world has given them characters which 
will be difficult to change, and which will probably 
remain for time and eternity. They seem to forget 
that the school-room is the place where they should 
meet the minds of their youthful hearers. 

The minister may frequently invite the teachers 
of the schools in his parish to visit him, and then 
converse with them on the best method of teach- 
ing children, and how they may increase and 
improve the means of instruction. He will here 
have an opportunity of rendering assistance to 



88 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

those teachers who feel an inability to fill their dif- 
ficult and responsible office. Ministers should be 
familiar with the character and qualifications of 
the teachers in their congregation, and with the 
condition of all the schools. They should know 
the number of the children who attend school, and 
the number who do not attend. They may know 
the progress which the children make in their stu- 
dies, and the fitness and character of the books 
which they use ; and they may ascertain and im- 
prove the moral discipline by which they are daily 
governed. But how seldom is this done ! How 
few ministers know as much as they might of the 
means and amount of education in their congre- 
gation ! How few, in their pastoral visits, stop at 
the school-house, and examine the morals and intel- 
ligence of the children ! We do hope that minis- 
ters will feel that these schools have stronger claims 
upon their care and counsel than they have here- 
tofore received. 

But with all this desirable and necessary super- 
vision from law, learning, and experience, the 
character and usefulness of the school will depend 
very much upon the individual efforts of each in- 
habitant of the district. Parents must be willing 
to give a fair compensation to the instructers of 
their children ; and every teacher, and scholar, 
and guardian, and parent, must feel that the inter- 
est and value of the school depend upon his own 
intelligence and exertions. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 89 



SECTION VI. 

TEACHING SHOULD BE MADE A PROFESSION. 

Teaching, in our district schools, should be 
made a distinct Profession. The teacher's em- 
ployment should be made as honourable and as 
separate as the physician's, the divine's, or the 
lawyer's. The teacher should prepare himself for 
his business, and labour as exclusively in his calling 
as the lawyer does in his. To be a good in- 
structor requires as much knowledge of human 
nature, as uniform a government over ourselves, 
and as complete a mastery of the respective studies, 
as it does to be a good preacher. All who take 
this view of the subject, and we think all who have 
had any experience, or made but a few observa- 
tions, will, must agree with us, when we say that 
teaching should be made a distinct profession. 

We w 7 ould not employ a man who may have had 
a good education, but had given his attention to 
buying and selling goods, to be our physician, when 
disease takes hold upon us. We would not en- 
gage a man to plead our rights before a judge and 
jury, who had not made the law and the rights of 
man his study for years. Neither would we 
choose that man to be our teacher in divine things, 
H2 



90 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

who does not make the Bible the rule and study of 
his life. Why not? Why do we require the 
wisdom of experience and professional knowledge 
in these three vocations ? Is it not because we 
know that they are absolutely necessary? What 
is it that the law, or the medical, or the theological 
student gains in devoting six or eight years to 
literary, and three years to professional studies ? 
Is it not the experience and the wisdom of others ? 
Is not all this preparation made to enable them to 
perceive the nature, rights, condition, and duties 
of man ? Now, are the labours of the teacher less 
difficult, less arduous than either of the professions 
I have mentioned ? That the teacher may perform 
his duty well, does he not need the experience of 
others ? Is it not necessary for him to perceive 
the nature, duties, and condition of men? This 
will be admitted. Then why not make it as ne- 
cessary to spend the same amount of time, and 
enjoy as high privileges for obtaining this know- 
ledge ? 

Why is it that the practice of law or medicine 
is so much more honourable and lucrative than 
elementary teaching? Not because it is more 
important to the community — not because there is 
any more necessity for it. No ; it is less important, 
less necessary. What, then, is the reason? We 
answer, that before men can practise in either 
of these professions, they must qualify themselves 
- — they must fit themselves for doing honour and 
justice to their profession. These professions have 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 91 

taken a high place in the estimation of the world, 
not because they are more influential in giving a high 
and noble character to men, — for the elementary 
teacher has the formation of the character in his 
own hands — but because there are in these profes- 
sions, learning, and talent, and character. But 
why are there not this learning, and character, and 
talent among teachers ? simply because their 
learning is not appreciated — not rewarded ; talent 
with them has no opportunity of gaining distinc- 
tion, and character is not always required. Men 
think more of their wills, or the pleasures of the 
body, than they do of an education, or the happi- 
ness of a well-regulated mind. The reason of this 
unwise choice is, they have never been educated 
to the love of knowledge — they have never felt the 
power and pleasure there is in knowing. Why ? 
They have never had teachers who could develop 
the mind, and lay open before it the treasures of 
science. They never had teachers who made the 
school-room the most delightful place they ever 
visited — who made the exercise of learning the 
most agreeable one they ever engaged in. But 
why have there not been such teachers ? There 
have never been any means or pains taken to qualify 
them. The teachers have not made instruction 
their business — their profession. They have not 
loved their employment — probably disliked it. 
They became teachers from necessity. This 
office was not their choice — it was not one that 
they had been making any preparation for. How 



92 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

can it be expected that they should make their 
pupils love knowledge, from the simple, attractive 
form in which it should be presented. 

Men who assume this most difficult, and most re- 
sponsible of all professions, should avail themselves 
of all the aids they can obtain. They should ex- 
amine thhemselves, and see if they are prepared 
for their work — whether they have an aptitude to 
teach, and whether it is probable they will make 
their business their profession for life. If they in- 
tend to make instruction only a temporary thing, 
a step-stone to something else, a mere filling up 
of a vacant month, they will have no ambition to 
excel in this department, but will be desirous of 
terminating this unpleasant occupation as soon as 
possible, and of entering into other engagements 
more profitable. As long as this is the state of 
things, our school-houses will be furnished w T ith 
heedless, incompetent teachers. If the character 
of the instructers is elevated, they must be willing 
to make their employment their profession. It 
must be their highest ambition to obtain the name 
of a good school-master. They must labour to 
make their office as respected as it is important — 
as well rewarded as it is useful. Teachers may 
do this if they will make their business their study, 
their profession. When any business is made a 
profession there is a constant accumulation, from 
experience and experiment, of practical know- 
ledge ; the evils that are discovered receive a 
remedy, and depart to be felt no more — the im- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 93 

provements that are made continue, and the highest 
point of excellence of one aged teacher is made 
the starting point of improvement by his suc- 
cessor. 

The reason why the art of teaching is so little 
understood is, — there is no instruction in the past. 
If teaching had been made a profession, there 
would be a record of the success and the failure 
of the past, which would contain lessons more 
valuable to the teacher than all the projected 
theories and systems in creation ; but there has 
been no book kept ; there is no light from the past 
to throw its rays into the future ; no voice to 
teach, and no decisions to counsel. What was ex- 
periment one hundred years ago is experiment still. 
That which was conjecture then, is uncertainty 
now. Teachers have had no communication with 
each other,- — no exchange of views and sentiments, 
— no mutual aid ; each one has toiled alone ; each 
teacher's practical knowledge has been buried with 
him — silence rests upon their tombs, and they 
speak not. 

If instruction were made a profession, teachers 
would feel a sympathy for each other. Members 
of the same profession become attached by a simi- 
larity of efforts and views ; and thus the self-deny- 
ing life of a teacher would become social. He 
would feel that not only his own honour, but the 
honour of all his professional brethren, and the 
respectability of the profession itself, depended 



94 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

upon a faithful, conscientious discharge of his du- 
ties. He would feel that this united effort for the 
honour and usefulness of his profession, demanded 
something from him ; and he would act as if he had 
pledged something. This great united effort, this ex- 
tensive communication of sentiments, would make 
the teacher feel that the eyes of the world were upon 
him. He would feel that he had an audience, and 
that he had competitors. He would see that there 
was distinction to be gained — that he might be 
known and honoured. 

Unknown or disrespected as he now is, he is 
conscious of excellences unappreciated, or de- 
ficiencies unobserved. He compares himself with 
his school, and he is proud of his high attainments ; 
he sees himself the oracle of the little world he 
moves in, and believes that to know more would 
be useless. The intimacy that the transactions of 
a united body of men would give him with other 
teachers, would give him honour for his excel- 
lences, or dishonour for his deficiencies. The 
learning he would meet with would lessen the high 
opinion he had conceived of his own; and the united 
intelligence of all would make him perceive that 
more might be learned. 

A united body of men command attention and 
receive respect— for they have power. The defer- 
ence that is paid to the whole is, in part, trans- 
ferred to each individual. In the eye of the world, 
the limited knowledge of any one of the individual 
parts is enlarged when seen in connexion with 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 95 

the whole. We say, then, again, let teaching be 
made a Profession ; and let teachers be united for 
their mutual improvement, and for the respectability 
and usefulness of their honourable Profession. 



SECTION VII. 

THE GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE OP A SCHOOL. 

A teacher who loves his school, and addresses 
his pupils with a smiling countenance and a pleas- 
ant tone of voice, exerts a much happier influence 
than he does who governs by blows and punish- 
ments. He who allures his pupils into rectitude 
and industry by an agreeable, winning address, 
holds a very different relation to them than he 
would have by exciting fear and using severity. 
It is the influence obtained over pupils by kindness 
and sympathy that produces the highest kind of 
obedience. It is a government of goodness and of 
affection that disciplines the moral feelings of 
the subjects; and it is the lively interest and 
tenderness felt by a teacher for the happiness 
and improvement of his pupils which exert that 
kind of influence that is constantly carrying 
on a moral discipline. A teacher who has the 
confidence and love of his scholars may almost, if 



96 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



not entirely, dispense with his "rules" and his 
" ferules ;" his government is a moral one ; one 
that fulfils the law without seeing or knowing it. 
A love of doing right, because it is right, is the 
motive of obedience ; and the ability and habit of 
governing themselves are soon acquired, and the 
regulations of the teacher are no longer necessary. 
Every one now feels that his progress and reputa- 
tion depend upon his own exertions, and his own 
moral discernment in perceiving and doing what 
is right. 

Scholars who are taught and trained in this 
manner govern themselves. The teacher's au- 
thority is superseded by the love of right ; his busi- 
ness now is to improve the mind ; their conduct, 
the pupils take care of themselves. This is the 
result of moral discipline ; and this should be the 
government and discipline of every school. 

The very end and object of all government should 
be to make men govern themselves. Just so far as 
government falls short in producing this effect, it 
is defective. Laws should so command what is 
right, and forbid what is wrong, as to give a moral 
discernment of that course of conduct which leads 
to the happiness of the individual. Thus, the right 
way being perceived, and the individual being 
conscious that this way produces the greatest 
amount of happiness, the laws which first gave 
this perception, and pointed out this way, are in a 
great measure useless and set aside. The indi- 
vidual now governs himself: and this should be 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 97 

the end of law, whether national, municipal, or that 
which is made for the school-room. 

A teacher, instead of enforcing the observance 
of his laws, should be labouring to make his pupils 
understand what is right and what is wrong, and 
the certain consequences of doing right, and the 
natural and inevitable consequences of doing 
wrong; in other words, there should be such a 
moral discipline going on, that the pupils will soon 
be capable and desirous of governing themselves. 
Each scholar, then, will not only be jealous of his 
own good conduct, but of the good conduct of each 
member of the school. Each scholar will feel a 
lively interest in the order and operations of the 
school. He will become a part of the whole, and 
will feel the same general interest that the teacher 
feels. This interest the teacher should always 
secure. It will make his government easy and 
popular. 

A teacher should govern his scholars as rational 
and moral beings. They are as capable of per- 
ceiving a distinction between truth and falsehood, 
and right and wrong, as he, is — perhaps more so. 
After we have lived in this world of error and 
prejudice twenty or thirty years, our moral and 
intellectual powers are apt to become disordered, 
and deceive us. But a child is fresh from that 
Hand which has written the law of truth upon the 
heart ; that has made him capable of discerning 
between good and evil; and between merit and 
demerit. 

I 



98 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

You, as a teacher, are unfolding their mental 
powers, that they may reason and reflect : then 
give them an opportunity of exercising this reason, 
and of making reflections upon their actions and 
upon what they learn. Let them commence this 
work with you, and make some use of your instruc- 
tions. Do not teach them that they are made to 
think and reflect, and at the same time treat them 
as though they were machines, unable to think 
or reason. Let your scholars see that you believe 
they have such powers, in the exerpise of which 
you tell them their chief dignity consists. Let the 
force of their desires, appetites, and passions be con- 
trolled by their reason while they remain with you, 
that they may be under the same control when the 
pupil is left to take care of himself. 

Why are children so volatile, and obdurate, and 
dull, and full of mischief? Is it not, in some mea- 
sure, because all natural and lawful exercise of 
the mind is denied them? Their minds will be 
active, and if they are not permitted to reason, 
they will study to evade ; if they are not permitted 
to see the justness of ^our command, is it strange 
that they should be obdurate ? Many of your 
pupils will have mature judgments, and all of them 
unsophisticated ones ; and on matters within the 
scope of these understandings you should appeal 
to them for decisions. I know that with some 
scholars you must use force; but, in the first place, 
try the influence of persuasion and reason. I am 
aware that it is much easier and quicker to give a 



i^STRlCT SCHO0L. 99 

blow than a reason; but one reason may secure 
longer obedience than five hundred blows. A 
government of force exists only where the eye of 
the teacher is resting. A government of reason 
is always looking at the children, and they at it. 
True it is, that the teacher must have authority ; 
he is the governor of his little republic, and must 
be obeyed. But as far as reason can transfer this 
authority to the scholars, the teacher should be 
willing to relinquish it ; it will govern for him. 

Punishments w T ill sometimes be found necessary. 
But severe* punishments should be used with great 
care. They should have peculiar reference to the 
character of the pupil, so as not to awaken a spirit 
of bitterness or defiance, or dislike to study. I 
think that punishments, as much as possible, should 
foe mental instead of being corporal* 

But whenever they are necessary, and whatever 
kind maybe inflicted, they should answer their end. 
The end of punishment should be to prevent a 
repetition of the offence ; but the kind and degree 
of punishment that is generally awarded, and the 
manner in which it is usually inflicted, come far 
short of securing this end. The only effect of 
punishment, in too many cases, is the excitement 
of the bad passions of the pupil. And when such 
passions are frequently inflamed, the character is 
forming, and becoming fixed, under the most un- 
happy circumstances. 1 believe that much of the 
malignity of men has its origin in the injudicious 
punishment of children. When the teacher finds 



100 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

it necessary to correct a scholar, he should exer- 
cise his judgment in determining the nature and 
the degree of punishment which the peculiarities 
of the individual require ; he should likewise ad- 
minister it in that manner which the nature of the 
offence, and an intimate knowledge of the charac- 
ter of the offender, may seem to prescribe. There 
is at present a great deal of corporal punishment 
in our district schools ; and I am afraid that but 
very little of it answers the end for which it should 
be given. The fear of doing wrong for the time, 
and hatred to the teacher and the school, are, too 
frequently, the results of corporal punishments ; 
and I think that teachers should consider this part 
of school government with more care than they 
have hitherto done. 

Punishments should seldom, if ever, be inflicted 
before the school. The fear of being laughed at, 
or called a fellow of " no spunk," will prevent the 
criminal from yielding as soon as he would other- 
wise do if this pride was not touched by the pres- 
ence of his associates. When the criminal is ar- 
raigned before the school, he will be less inclined 
to confess his fault and ask the forgiveness of the 
teacher. There should be no check upon the 
child's disposition to yield or to make confession ; 
on the contrary, all the circumstances should favour 
this disposition. The teacher should take the 
offenders aside, where they may be unseen and 
unheard, and then show his pupils the nature of 
the offence,.its consequences upon the school and 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 101 

trpon its author. If he finds punishment neces- 
sary, he should administer it with calmness and 
affection ; convincing the pupil that he is pained 
because his teacher loves him. 

Crimes which are common to many of the scho- 
lars should be made known and corrected before 
the school. Such as the use of profane language, 
lying, quarrelling, and disrespect. These crimes 
the teacher should publicly reprimand. The pub- 
lic opinion should regard them in such a light, that 
they would be at all times, and in all places, the 
greatest disgrace to their authors. The teacher 
should frequently 'describe that conduct which en- 
sures happiness and esteem, and the opposite, 
which brings misery and disgrace. He should 
show the scholars the effect of habit, — the influence 
it has in prompting them to right or wrong ac- 
tions. He should tell his pupils, that the best way 
to find out what they will be is to inquire what 
they are now, — that their conduct, by the time 
they are twenty years old, will have fixed their 
character far life. Instructions of this kind from 
the teacher are very desirable ^ yes, I may say, 
absolutely necessary. 

The teacher should show his scholars that he is 
acting under moral obligations — that he is gov- 
erned by just laws, and that he feels and wishes to 
do his duty. This will secure him obedience and 
respect ; it will make the scholars unwilling to 
injure his feelings, or give him any unnecessary 
trouble. The government should be impartial. 

12 



102 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

The larger scholars of the school rendering the 
same obedience that is required of the smaller 
ones ; the dull and the backward receiving the 
same attention that is given to the sprightly and 
more advanced. The children of those parents 
who are in humble circumstances put upon the 
same equality with the more favoured. Justice 
and impartiality appearing in whatever the teacher 
says or does. This will secure the friendship of 
all, and prevent those complaints, dissatisfactions, 
and divisions which are now so common in our 
district schools. 

A teacher should have the same government 
over himself out of school, that he has in school. 
I have seen many teachers lose all respect from 
their pupils by frivolous, improper conduct while 
out of school. This is to be lamented by all. In- 
consistency of character always destroys a man's 
influence ; and no one will see it sooner than a 
scholar when exhibited in his teacher. The 
scholar has been convicted of impropriety, and 
will be on the watch to detect the same fault in 
his teacher. This should make teachers more 
circumspect. They may have a wise government 
in school, but counteract all its influence by their 
boyish or unjust conduct while out. 

The government of a school should be regular 
and systematical. Children love system. They 
are delighted with order and regularity ; and the 
benefit of the school will depend upon the teacher's 
having a time for every thing, and every thing in 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 103 

its time. Every scholar, also, should have his 
place, and every one should be in his place. By 
such arrangements, the instructer will accomplish 
more in ten minutes than he could in an hour 
without system. The government in our district 
schools is not as systematical as it ought to be ; 
many of them are miserably deficient in this im- 
portant part. There are two reasons which ap- 
pear to be the main ones. The first is, in such a 
changing, discordant scene, it is difficult to establish 
and sustain order and system ; and in the second 
place, the most of teachers have but very little sys- 
tem in their own thoughts and life. But I know of 
no other employment where the want of order and 
system is productive of so much injury, as it is 
in the government of a school. Nothing, or next 
to nothing, can be done without them. They 
only can prevent confusion and so much needless 
waste of time. 

The teachers should never threaten. As soon 
as you threaten you commit yourself. You can- 
not exercise your judgment in the next offence, but 
you must punish, let the circumstances be what 
they may. By scolding, you show your weakness ; 
and by threatening, your injustice to the present, 
and your slavery to the future. 

How seldom are threats executed ! The teacher 
does not mean to execute them at the time he 
foolishly makes them. He makes them to frighten 
for a moment, but not to remember them. But is 
not this something more than a white lie ? Is it 



104 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

not the very worst example for children, who are 
generally so prone to tell what is not true ? More 
care, much more should be used by teachers in 
this part of their conduct and government. 

A government should not be severe at one time, 
and lax at another. A teacher is very apt to 
govern as he happens to feel. If he is a little un- 
well, or has met with some unpleasant circum- 
stance, he is inclined to be hasty and severe ; he 
does not make those allowances which he does at 
other times, and works off the bad humour, which 
has been caused by something foreign to the school, 
on some little offence of one of the scholars. . This 
eapriciousness renders his government unpopular, 
and makes the pupils suppose that their punish- 
ment is bad fortune instead of justice. They will 
not be willing to submit to his freakish authority, 
but will be more inclined to dispute than to obey. 
A government should always be uniform. 

Teachers in their government should exercise 
much charity. They should, indeed, have that 
charity " which suffereth long, and is kind," and 
" which is not easily provoked." They will meet 
with many unpleasant scenes — with many provok- 
ing things ; but they must learn to forgive, and at 
the same time to reprove with firmness, yet in love. 

The government and discipline of a school should 
have particular regard to the manners of the 
scholars. Very little attention is given in our 
district schools to this important part of education. 
I say important, for manners are something with 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 105 

all, and every thing with some. I must say, and 
it is with reluctance, that the American people, 
especially the labouring classes, have too great a dis- 
regard (may I not almost say contempt) for what is 
called " politeness." As soon as this word is men- 
tioned to some, especially in the country, hypoc- 
risy, affectation, and hollow civility dance in their 
fancy, and they immediately suppose that every 
one who is polite is insincere, a dandy, and a 
fellow of great pretensions without the least worth. 
They think that politeness and honesty can never 
be united ; and have suspicions of every one who 
is not as rough and blunt as they are. Hence, 
they take no pains to improve their own manners, 
or to correct the indecencies and clownishness of 
their children or associates. The manners and 
address of the teacher never undergo inspec- 
tion ; they are probably never thought of, unless 
they are a little cultivated, and then, perhaps, they 
are set down to his disadvantage. This is not 
always so, but it is too often. We, as a people, 
have too much selfishness, too much social inde- 
pendence. We are too indifferent to those little 
things and decencies upon which the most of our 
happiness is placed. In our intercourse with each 
other, there are a thousand attentions and civilities 
which greatly increase our enjoyment, and which 
cost us neither time nor money. This all know, 
and all acknowledge ; and it is to be regretted 
that so little attention is paid to the manners of the 
children in our district schools. It is true, they 



106 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

are taught, in some places, to pull off their hats, 
and to pitch the head towards the ground when a 
neighbour or a stranger passes or enters the school. 
And this is the whole amount of their instructions. 
If they obey orders in this, by making preparation 
for some time before the traveller comes up, and by 
repeating the bow or courtesy three or four times, 
they have learned sufficient, and are looked upon 
as " patterns of politeness." Chastity of thought 
and language, and graceful manners, are seldom 
required. It is painful in the extreme to witness 
the uncouthness and vulgarity which is licensed 
by some teachers ; for, to be silent on the subject 
gives a license. I know that there are many 
teachers who are honourable exceptions, and I 
wish there were more. A proper degree of atten- 
tion to the convenience and happiness of others 
is no small virtue. It is a duty which is binding 
on all. 

Teachers should strive to make their pupils 
agreeable companions, pleasing in their address, 
and courteous in their conversation. They should 
be careful to see that the intercourse of their pupils, 
while at school, is of this character. If such a 
habit is formed there, it will be natural and easy 
for them to be so when away from school. The 
teacher may do much in this branch of his duty by 
watching over his own manners and feelings. The 
children will naturally copy from him. What I 
have said on this subject is well meant, and I trust 
it will be as well received. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 107 

Teachers also may pay more attention to the 
language which their scholars use. Wrong pro- 
nunciation and bad grammar appear in almost 
every sentence. Teachers should notice this, and 
correct whatever may be wrong or inelegant. 
The scholars should be taught to express them- 
selves with propriety and elegance. It will greatly 
assist them in thinking correctly and forcibly, and 
it will prev^it them from being misunderstood. 



SECTION VIII. 

THE RESPONSIBILITY OP TEACHERS. 

Among all the offices and stations which men 
are called to fill in society, there is no one that brings 
greater responsibility than the teacher's. If we 
consider the qualifications which are requisite from 
the nature and difficulties of his employment, or 
the effect of the impressions and principles which 
the scholars will receive from the teacher, we shall 
look upon his office as connected with the most 
fearful accountability. The teacher is placed with 
immortal beings, who have just commenced their 
existence, and who have neither the warnings of 
experience nor the restraints of judgment ; but 
are rushing forward, reckless and susceptible, at 



108 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the mercy of the various causes and influences 
which they are daily under. Their ignorance 
must be instructed, their mental faculties developed, 
and those opinions and principles inculcated which 
will fix the character for life. The pliable natures 
of children are moulded and shaped by their edu- 
cation ; and this is committed to the care of the 
schoolmaster. I believe that instructers seldom 
reflect upon the extent and nature c£ their influ- 
ence with the susceptible minds of their pupils. 
They frequently assume the office of teaching 
with no other consideration than that the employ- 
ment will be less arduous than some other avoca- 
tion, which otherwise would be more agreeable 
to their feelings. They perceive not the effect 
which all their feelings, opinions, and actions will 
have upon minds which are growing into character, 
and which will soon be placed where they w T ill 
act upon other minds. 

Not reflecting upon the lasting and controlling 
influence of their example and - instructions, they 
do not see or feel the responsibility of their station. 
Thus they form and fix the characters of rational 
and immortal beings with as much indifference as 
they would manifest in raising food for the body 
that will quickly return to dust, or in manufactur- 
ing an article of clothing that is soon to perish 
with the usage. From the present and unending 
consequences of acting upon the young and pliant 
mind, I can think of no one who should have closer 
or more serious self-inspection than the teacher. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 109 

Yet, how often do we meet with teachers as igno- 
rant of themselves as they are of their business! 
They have supposed teaching to be an easy task, 
because they saw not its duties and obligations. 
They rashly and fearlessly offered themselves as 
members of the most difficult and responsible of all 
professions (for that which forms the characters of 
men is such), because they neither understood 
themselves, nor saw the momentous relations 
which exist between teacher and scholar. Let 
candidates, then, for this profession, reflect upon the 
influential and accountable nature of the teacher's 
office ; let them learn beforehand something of its 
labours, difficulties, and fearful responsibilities. 
Teaching, then, will not be chosen to gratify 
a feeling of indolence, nor undertaken without 
some distrust in present qualifications, accom- 
panied with a hearty desire for further improve- 
ment. 

The responsibility of a teacher is increased by an 
original principle in children to imitate. Children 
delight in every species of imitation, and by it they 
make their first acquisitions. A change in the 
countenance of the teacher will be imitated by the 
scholars. If he laughs, so will they ; if the teacher 
yawns and mopes, so will the scholars. From this 
strong and universal principle to imitate, even the 
teacher's gait, and pronunciation, and address, will 
be closely copied by his pupils. It was said by one 
who had closely read many pages in the book of 
human nature, that "Either wise bearing or ignorant 
K 



110 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

carriage is caught, as men take diseases, one of 
another ; therefore let men take heed to their com- 
pany." While the organs of the body are pliable, 
and the muscles are flexible, we would say, let 
parents take heed to their children's tutors. 

This proneness or propensity to imitate is so 
strong in children, that they always have the pecu- 
liarities of their associates. And whose manners 
and habits are so constantly before them as the 
teacher's ? Thus the teacher is giving character 
to his scholars by his every look and action. He 
is not only responsible for what he teaches, but for 
every emotion of the mind and movement of the 
body. The sympathetic nature of emotions and 
passions is such, that the teacher's feelings will, in a 
measure, become the feelings of his scholars. If 
he is uncouth in his appearance, awkward in his 
address, and of an ill-natured and fretful disposition, 
his scholars, to a great extent, will resemble him ; 
and on the other hand, if he is easy in his manners, 
calm, generous, and noble in his disposition, his 
scholars will insensibly imitate these desirable 
qualities. Whatever the teacher may be, he will 
give his own character to his pupils. Scholars 
always look up to the teacher as their model. To 
them, whatever has the teacher's approval is 
right. He is their criterion and their example. 
How wonderfully does this reverence, and this 
proneness to imitate, increase the teacher's respon- 
sibility. 

This principle of imitating the conduct and man- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. Ill 

ners of others was implanted for wise purposes, 
and may be turned to a good account. Says 
Dugald Stewart, " How many are the accomplish- 
ments which children might acquire insensibly by 
imitation, merely from the habitual sight of good 
models, and which may thus be rendered to therh 
a second nature, instead of consuming their time 
afterwards as arts which are to be systematically 
studied ! Of this kind, manifestly, is every thing 
connected with grace, both in utterance and in 
gesture ; attainments which become altogether im- 
possible, when their place has once been occupied 
by perverse habits, caught from the contagion of 
early example, and too deeply rooted in the frame 
to be eradicated afterwards by any speculative 
conviction of the ridicule attending them." 

Not only are bad manners caught from others, 
which cost us much time and expense to lay aside, 
but so ready are we to do what others do, that I 
think it will not be extravagant to say, that bad 
example has been the cause of as much evil in this 
world as depravity itself. We know that most of 
the knowledge which children possess is ac- 
quired by imitating ; while young, they learn but 
little from precept. Authority and imitation are 
the two great educators of every people. Thus 
every one who associates with children, as well as 
teachers, should be careful to give their authority 
to such things only as are wise, just, and good, and 
at the same time to lead lives which will make 
good models for the young to imitate. Parents, 



112 DISTRICT SCHOOIi. 

and teachers, and every adult person, have more 
influence upon children by example than they 
commonly suppose. For this reason I have said 
more on the principle of imitation than some may, 
think necessary. 

* Teachers are under a high responsibility ', since 
to them parents have committed the education of 
their children. They have voluntarily undertaken 
to assist parents in one of their most important 
cluties, and the parent has confided a trust in them 
of the highest nature. Parents have incurred con- 
siderable expense in furnishing the means for their 
children's education ; and these means they have 
placed in the hands of the teacher. Whatever 
these means may be, the teacher promises to use 
them for the best interest of his scholars. Faith- 
fulness here is expected from the employers, as 
well as promised by the instructed Industry* 
honesty* and a good judgment, are all requisite ta 
make a full and faithful discharge of this engage- 
ment. Parents make many sacrifices that their 
children may receive an education ; they wish 
them to become intelligent and respectable ; and 
they feel a high interest in the improvement of 
their minds and morals. But the benefit of the 
advantages which they give their children, and the 
realization of their wishes, depend, in a great 
measure, upon the manner in which the teacher 
performs what is justly expected from him. So 
far as he has the opportunity of preparing the child 
tQ meet the parent's hopes, he is hound to da it i 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 113 

and while the children are with him, he is respon- 
sible for the manner in which they improve their 
time. 

The happiness of parents depends very much 
upon the character and conduct of their children. 
But this character and conduct the teacher has 
taken upon himself to form and direct. He has 
said, — I will qualify your children, as far as the 
improvement of their minds and the effect of good 
morals will go, to be not only skilful in their future 
occupations, but to be dutiful and intelligent mem- 
bers of the family. Those parents, who have only 
been privileged with a limited education, and who 
are compelled to devote all their time to obtain a 
support for their family, are obliged to trust their 
children's education almost entirely with the 
teacher. Among mechanics and agriculturists, 
children receive but very little instruction from 
their parents. They are sent to school a short 
time, and the instructions of the schoolmaster are 
nearly all they ever receive. How deeply respon- 
sible is the teacher, when the parent must commit 
to him the entire education of his children ! 

Again, another parent watches over the educa- 
tion of his children with the deepest solicitude. 
He is careful to check every evil propensity ; he 
is anxious that his children imbibe good morals and 
receive good principles, and he brings them up to 
do justly, to love each other, and at all times to 
render strict and willing obedience. This faithful 
parent has high hopes of his children, for they ap- 
K2 



114 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

pear promising ; and, to increase their advantages,, 
he sends them to school. Now the teacher, in 
taking the care of these children, becomes deeply 
accountable to the parent. It is the teacher's duty 
to exercise the same watchfulness over them which 
they receive at home, lest the school should prove 
an injury to them instead of a benefit. He must 
keep a close eye upon their habits, and upon the 
influence which others may have on them. This 
watchfulness will be necessary, that the new associ- 
ates and discipline of the school be to them a good, 
and not (as they are too often with children who 
receive this attention at home) an evil. In every 
circumstance the teacher is deeply responsible to 
the parent for the manner in which he educates 
his children. 

Society expects that teachers will make the chil- 
dren and youth social, honourable, and benevolent 
members. From this just and reasonable expecta- 
tion of society, there is resting upon teachers a 
deep responsibility. The relations between the 
more aged members of society and those who 
have the care and education of the rising part, are 
close, and of the highest interest ; for the strength 
and respectability of any community rest with 
the intelligence and honesty of its youth ; with 
their virtue and industry rest its happiness and 
prosperity* The labours, sacrifices, and virtues 
of the aged and middle-aged, have conferred upon 
society peace, promise, and liberty ; but these 
blessings must now be entrusted to the childrea 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 115 

and youth who are in the hands and under the 
government and instruction of the schoolmaster. 
How deeply, then, do the teachers' duties affect 
the interests of society ! How responsible are 
they, who have the care of those who are not 
only to make the future communities of the land, 
but who will either sustain or destroy the honour 
and happiness of their fathers. We say, then, that 
teachers are highly accountable to society for the 
manner in which they educate its youth. The 
teacher is responsible to society, not only from 
having the minds and morals of the youth under 
his direction, but also from holding a station so 
favourable for making good members of the social 
community. His school is society in miniature. 
He may call forth and train all the feelings and 
passions which will be requisite to make good 
friends and neighbours in after-life. Children, 
when together, exercise the same selfish or social 
nature that they will manifest in a more advanced 
age ; and from the exercises and social inter- 
course of the school, he may prepare them for the 
duties and social intercourse of society. This, 
certainly, greatly increases his obligations, and, 
taken in connexion with his influence in forming 
the character, must place the teacher in a relation 
to society that is one, indeed, of high responsibility. 
Teachers are responsible to their country for the 
manner in which they educate her youth. Men, 
generally speaking, are good or bad citizens, ac- 



116 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

cording to the kind and degree of education which 
they have received when young. The faithful 
teacher, who makes his scholars virtuous and in- 
telligent, fits them for achieving or maintaining 
their political liberty: but he who neglects their 
moral and mental improvement, or inculcates 
wrong principles, is, in the highest sense of the 
word, a traitor to liberty. I know of no one so 
intimately connected, not only with the liberty of 
this nation, but with the liberty of a world, as the 
teacher of American youth. With him, to a great 
extent, rests the moral and political freedom of 
man. In what a responsible relation then does he 
stand to his country. He is forming the characters 
of those who will either perpetuate or destroy the 
free institutions of the land. He is giving that 
kind of education that will cause the youth of the 
nation to respect and sustain the blessings which 
our fathers have conferred, or that kind that will 
disrespect the legacy which was obtained by their 
valour and their blood. The light and defence of 
our literary institutions ; the strength and justice 
of our laws; the sacredness of our constitution, 
and the honour and greatness of our country's 
name, call upon every teacher of American youth 
to be faithful to his trust. They expect from him 
the blessings of their establishment, and the con- 
tinuance of their existence. The school-houses of 
a nation bestow and sustain her liberty and glory. 
Then, how responsible are teachers to their coun- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. HT 

try, when to them she has committed so important 
a trust. The American people have founded the 
temple of their liberty on virtue and knowledge, 
and this foundation they expect their teachers and 
ministers to lay. If they are wise and faithful, the 
nation has nothing to fear ; but if they are ignorant 
and immoral, American freedom will fall. 

The responsibility of teachers is great, from the 
consideration that they will give character to future 
communities. A s the present generation, in a great 
measure, determines and fixes the character and 
destinies of the generations that will follow, the 
influence of teachers will reach beyond the present 
age; it will be felt on the coming generations, as 
they rise up one after the other, till the last mo- 
nient of time. From those who went before us 
we received our national reputation, our opinions, 
our government, and our religion ; and all these 
were from the teachers of our fathers ; so, from 
our teachers will those who next follow receive 
their moral and political character. He who acts 
upon mind takes hold of the future, and acts upon 
eternity. He who gives shape and character to 
one mind, goes wherever that mind goes, acts 
wherever that mind acts, and speaks whenever 
that mind speaks. How accountable, how deeply 
responsible, then, are those who educate and give 
character to youth ! Teachers should think of the 
nature of what they are called to superintend — the 
active immortal mind; and they should reflect on 



118 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the boundless space which their influence must go 
through. 

Again, the responsibility of teachers is seen by 
reflecting that the happiness of each scholar, in a 
great measure, is in the hands of the instructer. 
The Rev. Samuel R. Hall has very justly said, in 
his incomparable "Lectures on School-keeping/' 
" that the teacher has the power of directing his 
scholars in almost any path he chooses ; you may 
lead them to form habits of application and in- 
dustry, or, by neglecting them, permit them to 
form those of idleness and indifference. You may 
win them either to a love of learning and a respect 
for virtue ; or, by your negligence and unfaithful- 
ness, you may suffer them to become regardless of 
both. You have the power to lead them to a culti- 
vation of the social affections, to make them kind, 
benevolent, and humane ; or, by your neglect, they 
may become the reverse of every thing that is 
lovely, amiable, and generous. It will be greatly 
in your pow T er to assist them in learning to make 
nice distinctions in the examination of moral con- 
duct, and to govern their own actions accordingly ; 
or you may, by your unfaithfulness, suffer them to 
contract the habit of pursuing, regardless of conse- 
quences, every thing they desire, and opposing 
with temper every thing that counteracts their 
wishes." 

And lastly, how responsible are teachers, since 
their influence will reach into the world "that is to 
come," Whether scholars, when they are called 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 119 

to their final account, shall receive the rewards of 
the righteous or the punishments of the wicked, 
will depend very much upon the moral and reli- 
gious influence of their teachers. Instructers not 
only form a character for this world, and one that 
will be estimated by men, but likewise a character 
for eternity, and one that will be estimated by a 
holy and a righteous God. 



SECTION IX. 

THE TEACHER'S COMPENSATION. 

The labours of a common school teacher are 
arduous, difficult, and responsible ; and I know of 
no individual in community whose services are 
more necessary or valuable than those rendered 
by a faithful, well-qualified teacher. Those who 
admit these propositions (and we think every re- 
flecting man does) agree with us, that labours at 
once so trying and so important should always be 
well rewarded. But are teachers adequately 
remunerated ? — are their wages such as to en- 
courage young men to qualify themselves for teach- 
ing? — such as to secure men who will make the 
profession of teaching honourable, and our schools 
valuable 1 We say they are not. Capable, faith- 



120 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

ful teachers do not receive a sufficient compensa- 
tion. The common school teacher, who is em- 
ployed for twelve successive months, does not re- 
ceive more than eleven dollars per month. There 
are a few who get more than this sum, yet many 
more who get less. Now the common labourer, 
who hires himself to the farmer by the month, gets 
as much as the teacher; and the wages of the 
mechanic are double the wages of the teacher. It 
Is a very common practice with young men who 
teach during the winter, to labour on the farm 
during the summer: and they make this change 
because the summer wages of the farm are more 
than the wages of the summer school. There is 
no employment among the American people (what 
a reproach to our intelligence and our affluence !) 
which receives less pay than elementary teaching. 
Yes, there is no service so menial, no drudgery so 
degrading, which does not receive as much pay as 
we are now giving for that which is the life of our 
liberty, and the guard of our free institutions. Our 
leading intelligent citizens have perceived this fact, 
and they have published it, and have done much 
to make this lamentable truth known and felt by 
every parent and guardian in this republic ; yet, 
but few, very few consider it; for even now* 
many honest men think that teachers have an 
easier life, are better paid, and better treated than 
any other labouring class in the community. The 
great majority of the people do not see that they 
give no extra advantages whatever to those who 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 121 

are to give the nation its education and its charac- 
ter. A young man cannot afford to expend one 
cent in making preparation to teach a common 
school, for his wages, as a teacher, will be no more 
than those. of a common labourer. All that he 
pays for knowledge requisite to teach a school, is 
lost, in a pecuniary point ; for if he did not know 
how to read, his mere muscular labour would de- 
mand as high wages as he will be able to get, after 
spending two or three years, and as many hundred 
dollars, in qualifying hrmseil to teach. The little 
compensation which parents are disposed to give 
their teacher, offers no inducement to young men 
to make any preparation for teaching. The conse- 
quence is, that a great number of our school-houses 
are furnished with incompetent teachers. The 
most of parents perceive that their teachers are 
not qualified ; and they complain loudly of this 
deficiency ; but they seldom perceive the cause of 
the ignorance and inexperience of teachers. They 
never reflect upon the necessary expenses which 
an individual must incur by preparing himself to 
teach, and upon their own unwillingness to pay an 
adequate compensation to those who are quali- 
fied. Parents cannot reasonably expect excellence 
and ability if they are unwilling to reward such 
qualities. If they are disposed to pay teachers no 
more than they now pay them, they must expect 
their teachers to ave the deficiencies which they 
now complain of. 

But few parents perceive the bad effects of 
L 



122 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

giving low wages to teachers. The evils arising 
from this ill-judged parsimony are numerous and 
destructive. It prevents young men from obtain- 
ing proper qualifications — it makes teachers indif- 
ferent and unfaithful in their employment — it makes 
them dislike their business, and anxious for some 
other occupation — it puts men in our schools who 
are lazy and ignorant — it makes teaching a tem- 
porary business for a few idle months, and it makes 
the teacher's profession low and disreputable. 
These are some of the evils which make our 
schools, in a great measure, useless to what they 
might be, and which arise from giving teachers too 
small a compensation. 

If parents would give teachers a higher compen- 
sation, it would encourage young men to qualify 
themselves for instructing. In the United States 
men pursue science and literature for a livelihood. 
There are but very few whose circumstances 
are such as to permit them to seek knowledge 
merely to gratify a love of letters. The most are 
obliged to make use of the attainments they have 
made as a means to give them a support. No 
one will improve his education beyond what is re- 
quired by the common business of life, unless he 
knows that these extra acquisitions will be the 
means, hereafter, of giving him higher wages for 
his services. He cannot afford it. If he prepares 
himself to teach others, the taught must be willing 
to pay him for that preparation ; for these previous 
expenses will not be incurred unless there is a 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 123 

certainty of a future return. If the wages of 
teachers were higher, the candidates for this pro- 
fession could afford to make a proportionate pre- 
paration for this office. And hence, if parents 
would improve the character and usefulness of 
their schools, they must be willing to indemnify 
teachers for the extra expenses necessarily incurred 
by making suitable attainments. Young men will 
never qualify themselves to teach until they see 
this disposition in parents. But as soon as a good 
education is honoured and rewarded in a teacher, 
acquisitions extensive and suitable will be made. 
Reward the profession of teaching as liberally as 
we do the profession of law or physic, and the 
teacher will be as liberal in his preparation as the 
lawyer or the physician. If we have poor teachers, 
it is because we give poor pay ; and if we would 
have better teachers, we must pay better. Parents 
have it in their own power, as we trust has been 
clearly shown, to raise the character and qualifi- 
cations of teachers ; and we shall now show that 
it would be for the parent's advantage to do so. 

In the first place, it would be the parent's in- 
terest to employ qualified teachers, because it would 
save tuition money. Parents pay more money for 
the education of their children by employing in- 
competent teachers, than they would do, by em- 
ploying teachers who are competent. In the 
affairs of life parents generally perceive that the 
cheapest article is commonly the dearest ; and 
those of more reflection perceive that this is al- 



124 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

ways the case in the article of teachers. A child, 
to obtain he same amount of knowledge, must 
attend to the instructions of a poor teacher three 
times as long as would be necessary with a good 
teacher. Thus, if parents do give but little to the 
teacher, they pay dearly for their children's instruc- 
tions. If they would secure the services of a 
qualified teacher, by giving him double the price 
of present wages, their school tax would be one- 
third less than it now is. We think it is clear, 
that even in a mere pecuniary point, it would be 
for the interest of parents to give a suitable com- 
pensation to competent instructers. 

In the second place, qualified teachers would 
promote the parent's interest by saving their chil- 
dren's time. Scholars under a good teacher will 
be as far advanced at fourteen years of age as they 
will be at twenty under a poor teacher. The 
time between fourteen and twenty could be spent 
in learning an useful trade, or in assisting the 
parent in the maintenance of the family. When 
children arrive at fourteen years of age, they should 
begin to acquire habits of industry ; and at this age 
their services begin to be of considerable value to 
the parent. If the child is sent to school at a 
proper age, a faithful, qualified teacher will have 
given it a good English education at fourteen. 
The child is then prepared to engage in some 
useful employment. But under the present state 
of things, children must be sent to school more 
or less till they are twenty, and then have but a, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 125 

very limited education ; not so good a one as they 
might have at fourteen if properly instructed. 
Parents do not perceive the time which is lost by 
employing incapable instructers. The time which 
the children would gain, if sent to a proper teacher 
while young, would be worth much more than the 
little extra expense of a good school. Thus it 
would be much the cheapest for parents to engage 
the services of teachers who have prepared them- 
selves for their profession. 

In the third place, qualified teachers, who would 
be able to govern correctly, and facilitate the pro- 
gress of children, would save the 'parent much ex- 
pense in books, paper, maps, slates, fyc. The school 
stationary of a large family amounts to a consider- 
able item in the course of a year. Parents know 
that these incidental expenses are quite a tax ; and 
every one would be glad to have them less. Now, 
the more rapid the improvement in writing, the 
smaller the quantity of paper,- pens, and ink, which 
the child will require ; the faster the scholar learns 
to read, the fewer the books which will be neces- 
sary ; and the quicker the pupils learn their geogra- 
phy and arithmetic, the less the expense of maps, 
slates, &c. Thus teachers, who could facilitate 
the progress of the scholars, would save the parent 
much expense in the stationery of the school-room ; 
and hence the parent's interest would be promoted 
by employing teachers whose wages must be 
higher indeed, but whose qualifications would 
L 2 



126 DISTRICT SCHOOXi. 

be such, that they would always be found the 
cheapest. 

Lastly (and this every one will think a very im- 
portant consideration), teachers who have pre- 
pared themselves for their profession are the most 
profitable for parents to employ, because they will 
then know that their children will be well educated. 
This confidence in the instructer will prevent 
much care and anxiety on. the part of the parent. 
Children are forming a character every moment; 
and their education, of some kind or other, is con- 
stantly going on ; this parents know, and it gives 
them great pleasure to reflect, that their offspring 
are directed by the skilful, moral influence of a fit 
teacher. It likewise gives the parents pleasure to 
reflect that their children's progress in knowledge 
is thorough and useful. 

With a cheap, unqualified teacher, the pupils 
spend most of their valuable time in learning what 
they must some day or other unlearn, if they ever 
make studious, correct scholars. Parents fre- 
quently pay cheap instructers more for teaching 
their children what is wrong or useless, or must 
be forgotten, than would be necessary to give them 
a good knowledge of elementary studies, under a 
suitable teacher. .This useless expense, bad in- 
struction, and slow progress, would never occur 
to give the parent distress and anxiety, if a faithful, 
confidential teacher was always engaged. But 
all these evils the parent must expect, if he is pe- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 127 

nurious and short-sighted enough to hire a cheap, 
worthless teacher. 

Again, it is common for parents to have not a 
little trouble in making their children go to school. 
Now this unwillingness to attend school, manifested 
by the child, does not arise from its dislike to 
learning, but from the parents having placed an 
ignorant, repulsive man in the school-house. The 
whole exercises of the school are made so un- 
pleasant and disagreeable, that the pupil heartily 
hates knowledge, and every place where it is taught. 
It would save children much unhappiness, and 
parents much labour, if an engaging, accomplished 
teacher was employed ; one who would make the 
school room the most delightful and profitable one 
they could ever enter. But before men can under- 
stand the operations of the youthful mind, and 
impart useful knowledge in an attractive, simple 
manner, they must be well educated, and well in- 
structed in the art of teaching; and this will not 
be until parents reflect, and perceive that it is for 
their interest to pay wages which will induce men 
to make the necessary preparations. 

If parents would increase the teacher's wages, 
they would raise the character of the profession. 
The compensation for teaching is so small, that 
accomplished, well-educated men can find other 
employments much more profitable than teaching. 
Thus, those who would become useful instructers, 
and an honour to the profession, are excluded, un- 
less some of these men are willing to make a 



128 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

sacrifice ; and our school-houses are left to be sup- 
plied by the necessitous and unqualified. Indolent, 
immoral, and ignorant men are often employed to 
teach our common schools : these disgrace the 
calling, and have made the saying " as lazy and 
conceited as a schoolmaster" familiar everywhere. 
Now, what is it that draws into our schools the 
worthless, and excludes the worthy. What is it 
that prevents men from becoming capable teachers ? 
What is it that makes teaching disreputable ? Pa- 
rents, it is your sordid avarice, your own short- 
sightedness, and your cruelty to your own chil- 
dren ! By offering an adequate compensation to 
teachers, you could demand learning, talent, and 
elegance. By a high-minded, generous attention to 
your children's education, you may make the pro- 
fession of teaching take an equal rank in usefulness 
and respectability with the lawyer's and the di- 
vine's. YOU MAY MAKE OUR LITERARY MEN FEEL 
IT THEIR HIGHEST AMBITION TO BECOME 600D 

schoolmasters. The honour of the profession 
o r teaching rests with you ; you can continue its 
low condition, or you may raise it to honour and 
respectability. 

Parents cannot receive the advantages of the 
school system, unless they employ qualified teachers. 
Legislation in many of the states has done much 
for the education of children. Large school funds 
have been raised to assist the parents, and a wise 
and liberal system has been organized to give union 
of action and instruction to the inhabitants of every 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 129 

district. Through the vigilance of the public 
officers, these princely funds have an equitable dis- 
tribution ; and the school system is everywhere in 
active operation. The wisdom of legislation, and 
the watchfulness and counsel of learning and talent 
are ready to assist and protect our schools. The 
great thing that is wanting is the co-operation of 
parents. Unless parents are willing to unite their 
efforts with legislation and official counsel, they 
will receive but little aid from the government. 
Great assistance, indeed, may be had from the 
school funds and the school system, if parents 
will make this active, liberal co-operation ; but 
without this obligatory exertion on the part of 
parents, the state can do them but little good. It 
is to be regretted that so great a part of the school 
fund is lost by being squandered on unqualified 
teachers. Parents, by hiring such teachers, per- 
vert the benevolence of the state, and exclude 
themselves from those advantages which the gov- 
ernment wishes to give them. If the funds were 
bestowed on worthy, well-qualified teachers, the 
inhabitants of the district would be greatly as- 
sisted, and the spirit and intention of the school law 
would be fully answered. But the public funds 
are lost when they support men who are rather an 
injury to the schools than a benefit ; and the parents 
voluntarily deprive themselves of that aid which 
is so generously offered to all. We do hope that 
parents hereafter will feel unwilling to pervert the 
public school funds by squandering them on un- 



130 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

worthy, incompetent teachers ; and that they will 
be disposed to receive the advantages of these 
funds by engaging such teachers as the law in- 
tended the funds should support. 

And finally, to employ well-qualified teachers is 
the only way for parents to increase the usefulness 
and raise the character of district schools. Parents 
may employ men to recommend the best systems 
of government, and the best methods of teaching; 
and they may purchase the most improved school 
books for their children ; and they may be at- 
tentive to their children's education at home ; and 
they may do all that can be done ; and after all, if 
there is an unfaithful, unqualified teacher in the 
school-house, all that is done is lost, worse than 
lost ; for they have given their children the means 
of perverting privileges, of learning error, and of 
confirming bad habits. Let me, then, again say to 
parents, if you would act according to your own 
interest, even in a pecuniary point ; if you would 
encourage young men to qualify themselves for 
teaching ; if you would have your children well 
educated ; if you would have your children love 
knowledge ; if you would raise the character of 
the teacher's profession ; if you would make it the 
highest ambition of literary men to become a good 
schoolmaster ; if you would receive the advan- 
tages of the school system, and obey the spirit of 
the school act, be willing to give such wages as 
will secure the services of faithful, well-qualified 
teachers. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 131 



SECTION X. 

A TEACHER SHOULD MAKE HIS SCHOOL PLEASANT. 

Children and youth are governed almost en- 
tirely by their feelings. They are controlled 
neither by the reason of maturer years, nor the 
habits of advanced age. With them all is fresh- 
ness and curiosity ; and nothing is so likely to in- 
terest them as novelty and change. And a teacher, 
who has not only to govern his scholars, but to in- 
terest them, who has to amuse as well as instruct, 
should understand the motives and principles of 
action in the youthful mind, that he may be able to 
rouse it into activity, and give it its proper direc- 
tion. Something new will always please and ex- 
cite the youthful mind. This truth the teacher 
will take advantage of, to awaken dulness and in- 
difference : but he must at the same time guard 
against this love of novelty, that he may form 
habits of fixing the attention on any one subject 
till the mind has mastered it. And here teachers 
find a difficulty. The scholars become impatient 
before they are thorough. The teacher wishes to 
continue the interest, and to please his pupils by 
letting them advance, but knows that it is for their 
good (although he is unable to convince them of it) 



132 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

to make slower progress. He will have to put a 
strong check upon this ardent passion for some- 
thing new, and yet give it sufficient latitude to 
keep up a deep exciting interest. To keep the 
mind in this proper balance requires nice observa- 
tion, much ingenuity, and close reflection. 

Those who are under the government of their 
feelings are greatly influenced by first impressions. 
The teacher should be careful to have these fa- 
vourable. His first appearance among the pupils 
should be winning and friendly. If he should be 
ill-natured and repulsive at first, it will take a long 
time to eradicate the unfavourable feelings. The 
teacher should meet his scholars with a smile ; he 
should show them that he feels a deep interest in 
their improvement and happiness. He should 
overlook their faults at first, and endeavour to al- 
lure them by tenderness and sympathy, and not 
repel them by instantaneous harshness and severity. 

If a teacher loves his school, he will make it 
pleasant ; if the duties are a source of enjoyment 
to him, his government and instructions will be 
likely to be pleasing to his pupils. If he looks 
pleasant, the scholars will. I know of nothing that 
will produce this kindness, attention, and good- 
nature in the teacher, but a sincere love for his 
employment. Men are generally agreeable and 
efficient when they labour where they feel an in- 
terest and a delight ; and, on the contrary, disa- 
greeable and inefficient in stations which they do 
not like. No one should teach except he can sym- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 133 

pathize with his pupils, and feel happy in his 
duties. He should be free with his scholars, but 
not trifling — easy, but not familiar — sociable, with- 
out levity — a companion, and yet a respected 
teacher, and a beloved ruler. He should possess 
dignity, without stiffness or affectation, and should 
temper justice with mercy, and duty with love. 

The teacher, to make his school pleasant, should 
strive to create friendship and good-will among his 
scholars. The members of the school must meet 
each other every day, and spend the greater part 
of it in each other's society. In this close and 
constant intercourse, the bad feelings will be fre- 
quently provoked, and it will be necessary to have 
a large share of good-nature and a forgiving spirit 
to prevent strife and hatred from rendering the 
school association a nourisher of the evil passions. 
It is the teacher's duty to suppress the unhappy, 
destructive passions, and to cultivate the sociable 
and the benevolent. He can perform this duty 
only by producing love and friendship among his 
pupils while they are associated during the hours 
of school. It is said that the seeds of evil and 
good are planted by schoolmasters and mothers. 
Their negligence sows many of those that are evil. 
I think that it will not be doubted that many of the 
most malignant passions of men sprang up, and 
received the most fearful strength in the broils and 
quarrels with schoolmates. How necessary is it, 
then, that the teacher should keep a watchful eye 
over the intercourse of his pupils, and exert all his 

M 



134 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

powers in preventing the exercise of the selfish 
nature, and in developing and strengthening the 
social and benevolent feelings. 

Very few teachers perceive the influence which 
scholars have upon each other ; and many, very 
many, are altogether indifferent respecting the 
nature of this influence, whether it be good or bad. 
From this negligence and indifference in teachers, 
the growth of the evil passions more than counter- 
balances the benefit of the best instructions. But, 
if the teacher is disposed, he has the privileges, 
while strengthening the mind and furnishing it 
with knowledge, of cultivating the social and moral 
nature of his scholars ; and this to such an extent 
as to give them governing feelings and principles 
through life. His school is the world in miniature ; 
the same fears and hopes, prejudices and partiali- 
ties, passions and strifes, ascendency and submis- 
sion that we see in the greater world. Thus the 
teacher has the opportunity for preparing his 
pupils for that more extended sphere of life which 
will call into action the same feelings which were 
exercised in the more limited. He may, by regu- 
lating his scholars' intercourse with each other, fit 
them for useful, honoured members of society, or 
for destroying the peace and happiness of others, 
by the exercise of those appetites and passions 
which his negligence permitted to spring up and 
grow while at school. Let him, then, labour to 
make his scholars love each other ; arid to feel that 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 135 

they were made social beings that they might 
make each other happy. 

The teacher can render his school pleasant, by 
making the acquisition of knowledge the means of 
happiness. The young mind is delighted with the 
discovery of something new ; and it has pleasure 
in mere action, independent of the knowledge 
which this action secures. The very labour neces- 
sary to obtain knowledge, if properly directed, will 
afford enjoyment to the mind. The teacher, then, 
should take advantage of this love of action, and 
this desire of knowledge, and make them assist in 
making his school agreeable. I know of no higher 
enjoyment to the mind than its own exercise in 
finding out new truths. The reason why study 
is made such a task, and the exercises of the school 
become so irksome is, the efforts of learners are 
improperly directed, and the instructions of the 
teacher ill-adapted. The scholars perceive no 
certainty, nothing definite or distinct ; they know 
not that they make any advance or any discovery. 
They make nothing their own. The teacher's in- 
structions are not understood, or are not of the 
right kind for the age and attainments of the pupil, 
and possess no interest. Hence the dislike which 
children and youth have for study. But the mind 
was made to love knowledge as naturally as the 
eye loves light, or the lungs air, or the stomach 
food. And the mind has a much more exquisite 
relish in acquiring knowledge than the sense of 
taste has in preparing food for the stomach. The 



136 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

mind loathes knowledge sometimes, because it is 
offered in an unpleasant manner ; just as the palate 
loathes food that has been badly cooked. But when 
the teacher prepares the mind for the reception of 
truth, and then instructs according to the natural 
relations between mind and knowledge, the scholar 
will ask for no higher delight than that which he 
finds in his lesson. How often have I seen the 
countenances of children beam with interest, and 
speak with eloquence the gladness of their hearts 
when something new had been related. It is a 
pleasure beyond all other pleasures to instruct the 
young mind in such a state. And I know of no 
labour which affords so much happiness as that of 
the teacher's, if he is only prepared for his busi- 
ness, and loves it. And I know of no place that 
may be made happier than the school-room, if the 
scholars study rightly and are properly instructed. 
The mind is so formed that the teacher may make 
the attainment of knowledge the highest and most 
ennobling enjoyment that the scholar is capable of 
receiving. He may thus make the school-room 
the most desirable spot that the children visit ; and 
their school exercises the most pleasant and agree- 
able of any that they engage in. I know that many 
teachers are so disqualified, and the systems of in- 
struction so defective, that but few scholars are 
blessed with this skilful and happy treatment ; but 
this does not disprove the assertion. We think 
that whoever will study the nature of the mind, 
and perceive the relations between it and truth* 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 137 

will acknowledge what we have said to be true. 
If teachers are skeptical, I shall only solicit that 
they make the experiment. 

A teacher may make his school pleasant by 
timely and agreeable recreations. The mind (and 
particularly the youthful mind) needs relief after 
close application, even if it should continue but a 
short time. If this relief is afforded in the shape 
of innocent amusement, it brings to the mind a 
pleasure that it never receives from uniform 
thoughtlessness. There is pleasure in mental ex- 
ercise ; and there is pleasure, too, in refreshing the 
mind with proper diversions. 

The teacher should study the abilities of the 
mind, that he may know when it is weary with 
effort, and when to afford it amusement by relaxa- 
tion. There is exquisite happiness in unbending 
the mind after severe application ; and the teacher 
who understands human nature will take advan- 
tage of this principle of the mind, and make it one 
of the agreeable exercises of the school. He will 
connect not only the labour and the toil with the 
school, but also the amusement and the rest. 
Many teachers mistake, and make their scholars 
uneasy and unhappy by requiring them to remain 
too long in one position, or over a particular lesson 
in which they can feel no interest. Action, and 
almost continual action, seems natural to the 
young ; but teachers forget this principle, and 
compel their scholars to do violence to their na- 
ture. This makes them restive ; and if not allowed 
M2 



138 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

open action, they will gratify this propensity by sly, 
deceitful manoeuvres. Proper and timely diversion 
would prevent this secret mischief, which, if de- 
tected, will be followed by punishment ; and it 
ivould likewise prevent that listlessness and sleepi- 
ness which is so epidemic in primary schools. The 
teacher should see that the play exercises of his 
pupils are of a proper character and agreeable. It 
not unfrequently happens that the larger boys, to 
show their strength, or gratify their love of 
tyranny, intrude upon the rights and pleasures 
of the smaller ones, and spoil their sports, and 
make the condition of the weaker very uncomfort- 
able. The teacher should know that each one has 
his rights and his share in the sport. Many who 
are awkward or bashful, or perhaps not quite 
so sprightly as others, have been shunned or 
abused till their spirits are broken, and their feel- 
ings imbittered against every thing connected with 
the school. Such the teacher should take by the 
hand and show them that protection and tender- 
ness which their misfortune demands. They may 
thus be saved, and made, perhaps, the brightest 
ornaments to society. The teacher should always 
be solicitous that the hours of recreation be spent 
in such a manner that every one shall be pleased. 

The teacher may make his school pleasant by 
simplifying the studies, and by presenting his in- 
structions in an attractive form, Scholars soon 
acquire a disrelish for their studies, and a dislike 
to the duties of the school, if their lessons appear 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 139 

blind and unintelligible. If their studies are above 
the comprehension, they will be a task only to 
weary and puzzle the mind, and cause the scholar to 
hate knowledge, and all the means by which it is at- 
tained. That this is too often the case is the reason 
why scholars " go tardily to school." Also, when 
the teacher renders assistance, his manners may be 
so unpleasant that the scholar will hate instruction, 
because he has been offended by the instructer; 
or, perhaps, the teacher performs his duties as a 
mechanical task, perfectly indifferent to the in- 
terest of the school. 

If this is the case, the scholar will of course sup- 
pose that there is no pleasure to be found in the 
school-room. But if the studies are made plain 
and intelligible (which, from the present imperfec- 
tion in school-books, must be the work of the 
teacher), and the manners of the teacher affec- 
tionate and winning, the school-room and its duties 
will present to the pupils the highest kind of enjoy- 
ment, and cause them to estimate the worth of their 
school privileges according to their proper value. 
Children beg to stay away from school, and rejoice 
when they have passed beyond their school-days, 
because they always felt miserable when under 
the requirements of the teacher. The school- room 
was made a place of involuntary confinement, and 
its duties the worst kind of chains. No wonder 
that children incur correction twice a day by indo- 
lence or by playing truant ; but the teacher may 
change this unhappy state of things, and make the 



140 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

pupils as eager to meet him as they are now to 
shun him. He may make the children plead to go 
to school instead of running truant when they have 
been sent. 

The teacher should obtain the love and confidence 
of his scholars. Without these his labours will be 
very disagreeable, and almost useless. Without 
these the scholars will take every advantage, and 
render the teacher's labours doubly arduous. The 
teacher will find no requital for his efforts and anxie- 
ties so pleasing and acceptable as the love and con- 
fidence of his scholars ; and they will lighten his 
burden more than any thing else. The scholars, 
too, are pleased when they can carry their troubles 
and their difficulties to one they love, and who 
possesses their confidence. 

Scholars want some one to answer their ques- 
tions ; and it is always gratifying to receive light 
on those subjects about which the mind is in doubt. 
The teacher, then, who has the confidence of his 
pupils, can make them attached to him by enlight- 
ening their ignorance and gratifying their curi- 
osity. The teacher should convince his pupils 
that he is their friend— that his instructions may 
be made their greatest blessings ; and that he 
heartily wishes to improve their minds and purify 
their hearts. He should convince them that the 
cultivation of the mind, and the practice of virtue, 
are the only things that can make them ornaments 
and blessings to society ; and he should show them 
that their school privileges are for this purpose. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 141 

If he is successful in this, he will make them love 
the school and its teacher. It should be the con- 
stant aim and object of the instructer to make 
learning pleasing and useful, and his school at- 
tractive and agreeable. He should love his pro- 
fession, and strive to make every one happy that 
may be committed to his care. 



SECTION XI. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING SPELLING AND 
READING. 

Children should know the names of the letters 
as soon as they are able to pronounce them. The 
names of these signs or characters may be learned 
by the infant mind as soon as it learns the names 
of its parents, its pictures, its toys, or the name of 
the cat or the dog. The child commences acting 
and learning from the first moment of its existence, 
and soon acquires a knowledge of the names and 
some of the qualities of the objects with which it 
comes in contact. If infants could have the letters 
in large size on strips or blocks of pasteboard, or 
on any small articles which they might be per- 
mitted to handle, and which might be presented 
in connexion with pictures of animals and birds, 



142 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

they would soon learn and pronounce the names 
of the letters, in the same way that they learn and 
pronounce the names of any of the signs or objects 
they first meet with. Thus, by bringing the letters 
under the notice of infants in the form of amusements 
or in close connexion with their playthings, they are 
early and unconsciously learned, without loss of time 
on the part of the parent or child. The letters are 
learned, too, not as an unpleasant task (which is 
always the case both to teacher and child if not 
learned when young), but as a desirable exercise. 
Infants, it is well known, are fond of exercising their 
little organs of speech, and parents are pleased with 
these promising efforts, and are always heard pro- 
nouncing names to be repeated by the delighted 
little prattler ; and quite young children manifest 
pleasure in noticing the objects which may be 
selected for their attention. Now, the names 
which the parent pronounces to learn the child to 
articulate, should be the names of the letters of the 
alphabet ; and among the objects which are selected 
to busy and amuse the child, should be the letters 
of the alphabet. If this were so, parents would 
find that what was necessary to know was learned, 
as it were, insensibly and with delight, and taught 
without labour. 

If this is not done by the negligent or absent 
parent, and the child is sent "to school ignorant of 
its alphabet, the teacher may perform the task in 
a few days, and in a pleasant manner, though a 
very different one froqi that which is generally 
adopted in our common schools. The usual 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 143 

method of teaching children their letters, is to 
make them stand by the side of the master, and say 
A-eh, B-eh, C-eh, D-eh, E-eh, and so on to the end 
of the row, at most but three or four times a day. 
If there are three or four children by the side of 
the master, for the purpose of saying down their 
letters, but one is required to look on at the same 
time. In this way children spend from four to six 
months in learning the letters of the alphabet. 

The way of teaching children their letters, which 
has always been found pleasant and successful, is, 
holding up in the sight of all the children two or 
three letters of considerable size, and whose union 
spells the name of some familiar object. For ex- 
ample, let the letters O X, standing under the pic- 
ture of an ox, be shown to the children. The 
names of the letters are pronounced by the teacher, 
and by the children in concert after him. When 
the names of these two signs are known to the 
children, the teacher may tell them a story about 
the ox. By being interested with the idea which 
the letters represent, it will be almost certain that 
the children remember their names. The two 
letters may then be given to each of the children, 
who return to their seats, pleased with the signs 
which have been connected with such a pleasing 
idea or story. After a suitable interval the 
teacher may examine them, and if the names of 
the letters are remembered, they may be taken 
away, with a promise of showing them others, in 



144 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

connexion with a picture and a story, in a short 
time. 

The teacher again asks the attention of the chil- 
dren, and shows them the three letters b,o, y; one 
of them the same they had in the first lessson, that 
he may try the memory. The picture of a boy is 
seen over* the letters ; and after the children have 
learned the names of the two signs b, y, the teacher 
relates a story of a little boy he once knew or heard 
of. The children return to their seats with the 
two letters of which they have just learned the 
names. 

This method of teaching the alphabet demands but 
a few moments of time from the teacher, and makes 
it a delightful employment for himself, for he sees 
the young minds before him taking their first steps 
in knowledge, and at the same time their little fea- 
tures lighted up with joy \n their new enterprise. 
In one week's time he may make every child 
familiar with all its letters. How much time, and 
labour, and impatience, and compulsion on the part 
of the teacher, and dislike, and fretting, and hatred 
on the part of the pupil might be saved, if in- 
structors would permit children to get knowledge 
in school in the same manner that Nature teaches 
them out of it ! 

After the child is able to give the name without 
hesitation to each letter in the alphabet, it should 
begin to learn the powers of letters, when united 
in syllables. Here teachers and scholars find diffi- 
culty ; and here many errors and bad habits, which 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 145 

go with the child in all its after-studies and per- 
formances, take their origin. The powers of letters 
change with their connexion and position. From 
this circumstance many of the letters have several 
sounds, and some of them more than one hundred 
different, distinct sounds or powers. The child 
cannot be expected to perceive the great variety 
of different sounds in each letter, and to give to the 
letters of the syllable those particular sounds, 
which their connexion or position, or the arbitrary 
standard of pronounciation, may require. This 
can be done only after much study— after a long 
study of the etymology of the language; yet to 
some degree the child is required to do this who 
merely knows the names of the letters. 

In distinguishing and placing those different 
sounds is the difficulty. The child sees that the let- 
ters, by being brought together in syllables, have 
changed their names ; for to the child the name of the 
letter is its sound. To obviate this difficulty, and to 
take away this uncertainty in the mind of the child 
respecting the correct sound of the letter it may be 
pronouncing, teachers should select a number of 
dissyllables, in each of which the letters have the 
same sound. When the child has learned to pro- 
nounce these, it has acquired one of the powers of 
these letters. After this, syllables of three and 
four letters may be spelled and pronounced by the 
child. The letters of these syllables should have 
the same powers they formerly had when standing 
in dissyllables. The pupil will find these words 

N 



146 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

easy and uniform. After a proper time is spent 
on these simple lessons, let syllables be given to 
the child, where some of the letters have a different 
power. 

When the pupil has learned some of the most 
simple and common powers of the letters, when 
united into syllables, let him unite these syllables 
and form words. In forming words, most teach- 
ers permit a serious and lasting error. Children 
are allowed to call the names of the letters 
in the word, without dividing the word into sylla- 
bles, and pronouncing each syllable as it proceeds. 
The child is not better qualified to pronounce the 
word after it has named the letters, without di- 
viding them into syllables and pronouncing them, 
than it was when uttering the first letter of the 
word. 

The habit of calling the letters without pro- 
nouncing the syllables and uniting them as the 
pupil proceeds through the word, disqualifies the 
pupils from making any use of their knowledge of 
spelling, or of helping themselves at any time in 
ascertaining the correct pronunciation of a strange 
or large word. If children are accustomed to 
exercise their ingenuity in dividing the word into 
syllables, and to give the proper pronunciation to 
these syllables, they will seldom find any difficulty 
with strange or long words ; but if they are per- 
mitted to pass through the word, by only naming 
its letters, they will make little or no real progress, 
but confirm the worst of all habits. How seldom 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 147 

do we find a teacher who does not permit this 
evil ! I do not know when I have heard a child 
read who has in this thing been correctly taught. 
By allowing this error, the teacher greatly in- 
creases his own labour ; for the pupil must be con- 
stantly assisted — he cannot help himself, but is as 
dependant on others for the sound of the word as 
if he had never learned his letters. 

There is another error in our schools which is 
the cause of so much bad spelling in the business 
of after-life. The error is in learning and correct- 
ing with one sense what in nature and practice be- 
longs to a different sense. Children in school cor- 
rect their spelling by the sense of hearing. The 
teacher pronounces the word, and from the sound 
the pupils are required to spell it. After the ear 
has been trained for a number of years in this way, 
the pupil will spell nearly every word which his 
teacher gives him ; yet this very same pupil, when 
at home, and writing a letter to some friend, will 
spell almost every word wrong. Now, what is the 
reason of this accuracy in one place and incorrect- 
ness in the other. It is this, when at home the 
words appear, not through the sense of hearing 
(the sense which has been educated, and always 
applied to as the corrective), but through the sense 
of seeing. The pupil has not been accustomed to 
judge whether words are spelled correctly or not by 
their appearance on paper ; and the false spelling* 
not coming under the trial of the ear, escapes the 
unskilful observance of the eye. 



148 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

The origin of the evil being discovered, it re- 
mains to apply a remedy. This, by all who will 
practise it, will be allowed to be an effectual cure. 
Let the pupils, while receiving the words from the 
teacher, write them out on slates. After a number 
of words are given and written out, let the pupils 
interchange slates, and examine and correct each 
other's spelling. By this method the sense of see- 
ing is educated and made a judge. The eye has 
the words before it — sees their appearance when 
incorrectly spelled and their just and natural ap- 
pearance when rightly spelled. This same office 
the eye would be ready and able to perform when 
at home writing a letter to a friend, and bad spell- 
ing would be detected. 

The teacher should confine his pupils but a short 
time to words marshalled into ranks, as they stand 
in the columns of the spelling-book, without con- 
veying one idea, or any meaning whatever. There 
is too much mere verbiage in our district schools. 
Children are confined to these unmeaning, uncon- 
nected words for two or three years. Teachers 
should see the folly and the tyranny of this; they 
have seen the difficulty ; for it is with great labour 
that they keep the minds of the pupils directed to 
their lessons. As soon as children have learned 
some of the powers of letters, and have some fa- 
cility and correctness in joining syllables into words, 
they should be permitted to read easy sentences. 
These sentences should be composed of words of 
one or two syllables, and contain a familiar and 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 149 

pleasing idea. Now, for the first time, the child 
begins to feel pleased with its studies : all before 
this has been unintelligible signs and combinations 
of signs. But now it finds these signs conduc- 
tors of thought — of something that instructs and 
pleases it. The child is now gratified with its 
book ; for the book has an interest within itself suf- 
cient to draw and fix the attention. At present 
there are many books which are simple without 
being silly, and well adapted to children. These 
should be put into their hands. After the pupils 
are familiar with the language and contents of 
these books, others containing sentences more 
complicated, and words composed of a greater 
number of syllables, should be given to them. 

This is far from being the practice in our com- 
mon schools. The universal practice in these 
neglected places of learning is in the first place 
to keep the child fastened to unmeaning words for 
two or three years, and then to put books into 
his hands which a graduate of one of our col- 
leges can scarcely understand, and, perhaps, not 
sufficiently learned to appreciate. When the child 
can pronounce words of two syllables without 
spelling them, it is put into the English Reader. 
A fit book for a professional man, but entirely 
unfit for children. If the pupils at this stage 
of learning are not so fortunate as to be exalted into 
this " class of honour," they are privileged by read- 
ing in the back part of the spelling-book, or in the 
Columbian Orator; reading equally as unintelli- 
N2 



150 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

gible as that in the English Reader. Thus the 
child, from the time it commences going to school 
till its parents require its constant labour at home, 
spells and reads, and writes and rehearses words, 
and sentences of words, and whole volumes of 
words without even thinking of obtaining one 
clear, distinct, useful idea from them. The child 
never thinks of being questioned about that which 
it has just read. If a question of this nature should 
be put, the child would be Ss incapable of answer- 
ing as it would be after reading hieroglyphics. 
The pupil at school does not think that books are 
read because they have a meaning either to amuse 
or to instruct, but because they have words to be 
pronounced and sentences to be cadenced or em- 
phasized. His whole aim consequently is, not to 
find out the meaning of what he reads, but to finish 
his verse without " missing a word." 

Here we discover the cause of so many blunder- 
ing, unnatural, unaffecting readers. Imagine the 
effect of reading what we did not understand for 
even one week upon ourselves. It would unfit us 
for any impressiveness, either in tone or emphasis. 
But the youth in our schools are brought up, from 
infancy till the time they "finish their education,' 8 
to read what they are not required, or even ex- 
pected, to comprehend. It is no wonder that the 
tone of voice is so unsuitable to the sentiment, the 
emphasis so improperly placed, and the whole 
manner so artificial and unnatural. We do think 
that nearly all of the bad habits which we are 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 151 

obliged to witness and excuse, both in private and 
public readers, proceed from this mechanical, in- 
dolent practice of reading during our childhood 
and youth what we do not understand. 

If this be so, and we think no one who will go 
into our schools and question the scholars concern- 
ing that which they have just read will doubt it, 
we have found the cause of that defective reading 
which so often offends the hearers and disgraces the 
readers. We say, then, never let children or youth 
read what they do not understand, or that in which 
they can feel no interest. Let such books be put 
into their hands as are level with their capacities. 
Such as contain information which may be gratify- 
ing for them to receive ; such as treat of subjects 
with which it will be useful for them to become 
acquainted ; and such as have motives sufficient 
within themselves to make the young eager to 
peruse them. Let an instructive story be told in 
a simple, chaste, forcible style; or some of Nature's 
handiworks be described in a plain, natural, and 
speaking language ; or the application of some of 
the sciences to the practical purposes of life, in a 
simple, clear, intelligent manner; or the biography 
of some exemplary youth ; or any proper subject 
whatever, which children and youth can sympa- 
thize with and feel a lively interest in. If our 
school-books were of this nature, we should hear 
but very little bad reading. Who of us ever thinks 
of correcting a child in its pauses, emphasis, or 
tones of voice, when we hear it in animated con- 



152 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

versation with one of its playmates ? Let the child 
read what it understands and feels an interest in, 
and it will read as correctly as it converses. We 
say then, again (for we do think this great evil of 
compelling children to pronounce words for years, 
to which they attach no kind of meaning what- 
ever, too much neglected), never let children read 
what they do not understand. If there are words 
in the lesson of which they do not know the mean- 
ing, let the dictionary, or the attached glossary, 
or the teacher define them. Never let the young 
reader pronounce a word without receiving the 
meaning the author attached to it. 

The teacher should frequently question his read- 
ing class on what has just been read, that he may 
know how far they have comprehended their 
author, and ascertain what meaning they connect 
with the individual words. If we should ask 
adults, and even liberally educated men, to define 
some words of the most common use, they would 
hesitate, and probably be unable to give any thing 
like a correct definition. In this, the systems of 
instruction in all of our literary institutions are mis- 
erably defective. Educated men are in the con- 
stant habit of using words to which they attach a 
connective meaning indeed obtained from usage,but 
to which they would be unable to give a concise, 
correct definition. This evil is universal in our 
primary schools, and is seen to a greater or less 
extent in all our higher institutions up to the pro- 
fessional college. It is no wonder that men make 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 153 

such an improper choice of words, that they use 
so many which are equivocal, and that they are so 
frequently misunderstood. Their ignorance of the 
correct meaning of words does not permit them to 
select such as express what they intend to com- 
municate. 

There is in our district schools another bad 
practice which gives almost all of the scholars 
very unnatural and disagreeable habits, I refer 
to that high, uniform pitch of voice which the 
young reader is sure to strike into. I do not re- 
member that I ever heard a child read in a 
natural, conversational tone of voice. This is 
a great defect ; teachers should be careful to 
have their pupils read in natural tones, and to 
have them varied according to the sentiment. 
Teachers seldom pay any attention to articulation ; 
and the consequence is, that but very few articu- 
late well. 

It is very rarely that we hear a reader or 
speaker give each letter of the word its full sound. 
At least, very frequently one-half of the word is 
dropped, or clipped, or inaudibly uttered. This 
defect in articulation keeps the mind constantly 
directed to the words, that it may make out what 
they are, and the attention is diverted from the 
subject. This practice is also very unpleasant to the 
ear. Teachers should make their pupils give each 
letter and syllable its distinct, full sound. When 
this is done, there is a force and meaning in the 
word which is never given when half uttered. 



154 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

If I was asked what rules I w r ould give to chil- 
dren in our common schools that they might learn 
to read with ease, correctness, and impressiveness, 
I would say, only three, and these very simple 
ones. I should not explain the philosophy of the 
human voice ; I would not speak of emphasis, in- 
flexion, or cadence ; neither of pauses, nor accents, 
or intonations. But I would say, and I think it is 
all that is necessary to be said, understand what 
you ready — read in a natural, conversational tone of 
voice, and read often. If teachers will see that 
their pupils practise these three plain rules, they 
will have the pleasure of hearing good readers. 



SECTION XII. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 

It is to be regretted that our district schools 
furnish so small a number of good writers. But a 
very few out of the great number who are now 
practising this art in our district schools will be 
able to execute a free, bold, and legible hand. 
The greater part, including almost the whole, will 
number their school-days and still write with a 
stiff, measured, ragged, scrawling, blotting hand ; 
scarcely legible to the writers themselves, and 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 155 

almost impossible for any one else to make out what 
is intended. The youth are conscious of their de- 
ficiencies with the pen, and we seldom find them 
willing to use it. The little, imperfect as it is, that 
they have learned, is thus soon forgotten ; and 
many, very many of the labouring classes, by the 
time they have numbered thirty or thirty-five 
years, are unable to write in any manner what- 
ever. 

Others may write with some ease and finish 
while in school, and the copy before them, but as 
soon as the rule and plummet, the school-desk and 
the round copy-plate is taken away, they have lost 
the art, and find that they are unable to write a 
straight line or a legible one. 

It is to be lamented that so much time is wasted 
in learning what they never do learn, or what, at 
best, they feel ashamed or unable to make any 
use of; or, with others, what is so soon forgotten. 
There is, generally speaking, a sufficient quantity 
of time appropriated to writing, sufficient care 
(though fruitless) taken to provide materials (and 
a great quantity of them are used), to make all of 
the scholars good writers. There is some fault 
on the part of the teacher, or parent, or among the 
pupils themselves ; and we will (from personal 
observation) describe the process of learning to 
write in our district schools. The causes of so 
much imperfection may thus be developed. 

The child is (in most cases, for it is true that there 
are some exceptions to what I am about to say, I 



156 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

wish there were more), provided with a single sheet 
of fool's-cap paper, doubled into four leaves, a quill, 
and an inkstand, which probably has nothing in it 
but thick, muddy settlings, or dry, hard cotton, and 
thus duly equipped, sent to school. The thin 
small quantity of paper is laid upon the hard desk, 
made full of holes, ridges, and furrows by the for- 
mer occupant's penknife. The writing-desk in 
many instances so high that the chin of the writer 
cannot, without a temporary elongation of body, be 
projected over the upper surface ; this being done, 
and the feet left swinging six or eight inches from 
the floor, and half of the weight of the body hanging 
by the chin, the child with a horizontal view ex- 
amines its copy of straight marks. It then is di- 
rected to take the pen, which is immediately 
spoiled by being thrust into the dry or muddy ink- 
stand, and begin to write. The pen is so held, 
that the feathered end, instead of being pointed 
towards the shoulder, is pointed in the opposite 
direction, directly in front : the fingers doubled in 
and squeezing the pen like a vice, the thumb 
thrown out straight and stiff, the fore-finger en- 
closing the pen near the second joint, and the 
inked end of the pen passing over the first joint of 
the second finger in a perpendicular line to that 
made by the finger. In this tiresome, uneasy, un- 
steady attitude of body, and the hand holding the 
pen with a twisted, cramping gripe, the child com- 
pletes its first lesson in the art of writing. 

After such a beginning, the more the child 



BISTRICT SCHOOL. 157 

writes the more confirmed will it become in its 
bad habits. It cannot improve ; it is only forming 
habits which must be wholly discarded, if the 
child ever learns any thing. But in this wretched 
manner the pupil is permitted to use the pen day 
after day, for two, or four, or six years. The 
teacher shows the scholar, perhaps, how to hold the 
pen, by placing it in his own hand correctly, but 
does not see that the pupil takes and keeps the pen 
in the same position when writing. If the pen 
should be held correctly for a moment, while the 
teacher is observing, the old habit will immediately 
change it when the teacher has turned his back. 
Such practice and such instructions afford an ex- 
planation of so much waste of time and materials, 
of such slow improvement, and of so much bad 
penmanship. 

Another pupil, who commences writing at a 
more advanced age, finds the desk too low, and from 
being obliged to bend somewhat, soon lies down upon 
the desk and paper. I have seldom entered a dis- 
trict school during the writing hour, without finding 
all who were using the pen, or nearly all, resting 
their heads and shoulders on the desk, looking hori- 
zontally at their work* and the writing book thrown 
half round, making its lines parallel with the axis 
of the eye. In this sleepy, hidden position, it is 
impossible to examine and criticise what we are 
doing; and yet, teachers from carelessness, or 
from having their attention directed to some other 

O 



158 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

part of the school during the writing season, almost 
universally allow it. 

Teachers seldom prepare their pens previous to 
their being called for, and are thus employed in 
mending them while they should be directing the 
scholars who are writing. They do not always spe- 
cify and describe the frequently occurring faults in 
suchamanner as to assist the child in avoiding them, 
and in improving the next time where he has pre- 
viously failed. The criticisms are too general, 
too indefinite to profit the pupil, and he continues 
after this useless instruction to write in the same 
careless way that he did before. Teachers like- 
wise do not preserve the writing-books which have 
been filled, and thus they are not able to compare the 
one just finished with others written a few months 
before. If they should do this, the pupil might 
often be convinced of that which the teacher is 
unable to make him believe, — viz. that he makes no 
improvement. Teachers frequently set such copies 
as are very improper for the particular attainments 
or habits of the pupil : not discriminating or 
knowing what is required. 

To write with ease and facility that which 
may be easily read, is not only a desirable accom- 
plishment, but in this land of free and distant in- 
terchange of thought, absolutely necessary. And 
as an irregular blind hand is not only a disgrace 
to the writer, but a consumption of much valuable 
time to the reader, I shall give some directions 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 159 

which may possibly improve the present system of 
teaching penmanship. 

The child should commence writing at an early 
age, as soon as it has mastered its easy spelling 
lessons. Young children are fond of making 
marks, and with proper attention will learn to 
form letters as soon, if not readier, than they 
will when older. At this age, too, the teacher 
finds a difficulty in confining their restless minds 
to the book but for a short time, and writing 
comes in as a variety, and an amusement to them. 
If children commence writing when young, they 
always become fond of it ; but those who are not 
permitted to begin till they are eight or nine years 
of age, very frequently show a dislike to the pen, 
and become disgusted with the shapeless, uncouth 
letters their want of practice compels them to make. 
Their pride looks with scorn upon their inferior 
performance, and they throw aside the quill with 
contempt, probably never to make another attempt. 
I would say, by all means, let children commence 
writing while quite young. 

In their first exercises they should use the slate 
and pencil.. I recommend this after having ob- 
served the benefit of using the slate and pencil in 
more than one hundred different schools. In the 
public schools of the city of New- York, I have 
witnessed as elegant specimens of penmanship 
as I ever met with in any select school, or even 
writing school ; and in all of these public schools 
the pupils are required to use the slate and 



160 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

pencil for a considerable time. On the slates, the 
pupils should form letters and unite them into words. 
The letters should be large, and much care taken to 
give them their proper proportion. The teacher 
should also see that the pencil (which must be four 
or five inches long), is held in the same position in 
which the scholars will afterward be required to 
hold the pen. Let the pupil continue to use the 
slate till he can form all the letters with ease, and 
give them their due proportion, and be able to 
unite the letters with uniformity into words. If this 
method should be adopted in our district schools, I 
am confident it will be found a great improvement 
on the present practice, which is to give the begin- 
ner pen, ink, and paper at first. It likewise saves a 
great expense ; the slate and pencil not costing an 
hundredth part as much as the pen and paper. 
And I think (and teachers who have used the slate 
agree with me) that the scholars improve faster 
while writing on slates, than they do while writing 
on paper. 

When the pupil commences writing on paper, 
he should have a book made of at least four sheets 
doubled once, and well sewed and covered. At 
first, ruled paper should be used. The book should 
have the lines written out full, and kept free from 
blots ; and each pupil should have an inkstand filled 
with clear, free ink. 

This article in our district schools is apt to be 
extremely poor. The parents buy a paper of ink- 



2>ISTRICT SCHOOL. 161 

powder, and put it into a jug with the prescribed 
quantity of rain-water and vinegar. For a time it 
is good ; but after a while it is so far poured out 
as to appear thick. The practice, then, is to fill 
up the jug again with vinegar and water. The 
ink is now thin and pale, and not fit for use. The 
child carries it to school, but does not like it ; and 
takes the liberty of running to one of its neighbours 
to borrow its penfuls, as they may be required 
while conti nuing to write. The rejected inkstand 
is placed one side, and used at the evening meet* 
ings, religious or otherwise, for candlesticks. The 
inkstands containing good ink are frequently em- 
ployed in this service, and thus all of the ink in the 
school-house is good for nothing, or worse than 
none, for the children continue to use it, and blot 
their paper, and make many fruitless attempts to 
form the letters. If the inkstand should be so 
fortunate as not to receive this greasy treatment, 
they are, by the carelessness of the children, left 
unstopped, permitting the ink to evaporate and 
dry up, the loss of which is always the wreck 
of pens by their frequent dives after that which 
is not to be found. The inkstand is then filled up 
with water, and the diluted stuff is used, because 
the owner never thinks (or perhaps is not able) to 
get that which is better. Sometimes the ink is 
thick, and does not run freely in the pen. This the 
young penman overlooks, or puts up with in the 
best way he can, though never able to make a fine 

02 



162 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

mark or a smooth line. I say then, again, that 
the article of ink is not sufficiently attended to 
(either by teacher, pupil, or parent) in our district 
schools. 

The pupil being provided with a pen, writing- 
book, and an inkstand filled with free, black ink, 
may take his seat at the writing-desk. The desk 
should be about as high as the elbow of the writer 
when the arm hangs down by the side, and the 
surface upon which the book is laid should be but 
very little, if any, inclined. Most of our district 
school-houses have badly constructed writing-desks. 
They are injured, and stand unsteady, or cut full 
of holes, ridges, and furrows, or inclining almost to 
a perpendicular, making it about impossible to keep 
the book on them, or too narrow, merely admitting 
the paper, and not any part of the arm. They 
should be altered, and made firm; wide, and almost 
parallel with the floor, and of several heights to suit 
the several sizes of the writers. 

The pupil at the desk of a proper height, should 
sit in a healthy, easy attitude ; that is, but a very 
little bent over; his left foot a little in advance of 
his right ; his left arm resting on the table, its hand 
steadying the paper, and the body resting consider- 
able weight upon it, and the left side of the body 
somewhat nearer the desk than the right. The 
right arm should be left free, either to be thrown 
out or drawn in towards the breast ; it should re- 
ceive no weight of the body, but be permitted to 
move in a rectilineal manner, unwearied and un- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 163 

restrained. The whole arm should frequently 
move, but the forearm will be in constant motion, 
permitting the hand and wrist to advance across 
the paper as fast as the words are finished. The 
pen should not be taken from the paper while 
writing a word, even the longest one. The fingers 
making the vertical, or up and down strokes, and 
the movement of the forearm the side, or what 
may be called the advance marks. The pen 
should be held with the feather end pointing directly 
at the shoulder ; it should be raised straight enough 
to pass up between the second and third joint of 
the forefinger ; the thumb a little bent out, and the 
end opposite the first joint of the forefinger, and 
the pen resting under the nail of the second finger, 
the end of which should be three-quarters of an 
inch from the paper. Sitting in the position above 
described, and having this hold of the pen, the pupil 
may begin to write. The teacher should keep a 
close eye upon the writer, lest he change the posi- 
tion of the body or the pen. This position is easy 
and natural, but former bad habits may make it a 
little unpleasant at first. The paper should lie 
square before the writer. 

The teacher having his pens (or pens for the 
younger scholars, for the older ones should prepare 
their own,) in readiness beforehand, should have a 
stated time for writing, when all should be engaged 
in it at the same time. His constant attention 
during this exercise should be directed to the 
position in which his pupils sit, to the manner m 



164 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

which they hold their pens, and to the imperfections 
of their writing. When a disproportionate letter 
is made, the child should see it as such — when some 
letters are too far from each other, or crowded into 
too small a space, the pupil should be told of it, and 
made to perceive it — when the letters do not come 
down to, or reach below the line, and are not uni- 
form, the writer should have his attention directed 
to this irregularity, and perceive the deformity it 
causes. Constant watchfulness is necessary on the 
part of the teacher ; for when the strokes of the pen 
are made correctly, and with care, every succeeding 
mark will be an improvement; hut when they are 
made wrong, every repeated effort strengthens a bad 
habit, and renders the pupil more and more unquali- 
fied for becoming a good writer afterwards. 

As I have before said, the larger pupils should 
make their own pens. To do this, each one should 
be provided with a good knife, and be instructed 
by the teacher. One reason of so many poor 
writers, is that the scholars in the district schools 
seldom learn to make their pens, and consequently 
are unable to furnish themselves when one is re- 
quired in after-life. They are obliged to have some 
one, and they make the best they can, but it is, 
indeed, a poor thing. This poor pen, added to 
what they they have forgotten of their writing, or 
perhaps what they never knew, makes a miserable 
scrawl — their straight mark would have been quite 
as honourable ; yet they have spent much time in 
learning to write. It is but of little use to learn to 



DISTRICT SCHOOL* 165 

write, if we do not learn to make our pens. Let 
all teachers, then, who attempt to teach the one, 
also teach the other. 

Young lads, who labour night and morning, and 
attend school during the session hours, should be 
careful not to over-heat or over-exercise their 
hands ; if they do, the swelling and trembling will 
prevent them from holding a steady hand when 
writing. Many commit this imprudence in their 
exercises. They should also keep their hands 
pliable as possible. 

They should read writing more frequently than 
they do ; much may be learned from examining 
the beautiful penmanship of others. This exercise, 
too, would enable them to read writing with more 
facility. They should practise writing without 
having their paper ruled. They will have to write 
without lines, and they should begin at school. 
They should, also, write without the copy-plate 
before them. Many are able to write well with 
this, but without it they can do nothing. Break 
away from it in school, and it will be easier to do 
so when out. 



166 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



SECTION XIII. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography, till within the last twelve or four- 
teen years, was not taught in the majority of the 
district schools in the 'United States. At the 
present time, geography is taught in nearly every 
school ;■ — with what success those know best who 
have patiently examined the children and youth 
now in the schools, and those who have gone out 
from them. I must say, after visiting many parts 
of the New-England states and the State of New- 
York, for the purpose of becoming acquainted with 
the condition of the schools and the intelligence of 
the people, that I discovered far less geographical 
knowledge among the children and the adults than 
I could have reasonably expected. I had known 
that this study was made a prominent one, and 
that it was attractive, and admirably adapted to 
younger scholars. I therefore supposed that I 
should find many considerably advanced in the 
study of geography. I was painfully disappointed. 
I perceived that nearly all of the children had stu- 
died or were studying geography, but that very 
few had any thing to communicate on this subject 
in an intelligible manner. I sought for the reasons 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 167 

of this deficiency, and am convinced that I have 
discovered some of the causes which prevent the 
scholars from obtaining this delightful and useful 
knowledge. I will mention some of those hinder- 
ances which I perceived wherever I went. 

And first, scholars do not easily perceive, and 
in many instances never, the true figure and mo- 
tions of the earth, from its representation on the 
plane surface of maps ; in other words, there is a 
want of globes, or substitutes for them. From the 
description of the earth in the geography, the 
child is told that the earth is spherical, but from 
the representation of it on the map, it appears a 
plane. That which is addressed to the eye is much 
more impressive and lasting than that which is 
made known by words. To the child, the earth 
appears a plane, and the map represents it as such. 
No means are taken to correct this wrong impres- 
sion. It is true that the book says, and the teacher 
likewise, that the earth is round like a ball ; and 
the pupil learns this, but he never knows it. Chil- 
dren, who have studied geography without a globe 
for years, have frequently been heard to say, when 
accidentally meeting with one, " Why, you don't 
mean that the earth is round like that, and turns over 
so?" — "Certainly; have you never learned that?" — 
" Yes, but we never knew it before." By the help 
of the globe, too, another error obtained from the 
map is corrected. The pupil perceives that but 
one-half of the earth can be seen at the same time ; 
and by the help of a candle at night, or in a dark 



168 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

room, the motion of the globe shows in a moment 
the true cause of day and night. Of all this the 
child remains ignorant with no other assistance 
than the map. 

Now not one school out of a thousand is fur- 
nished with a globe ; nor is there a teacher among 
as great a number who has ingenuity or inclina- 
tion sufficient to supply a substitute. The conse- 
quence is, that after all the study, the pupils are 
ignorant of those two facts which lie at the founda- 
tion of this department of knowledge. 

Secondly, pupils with young and weak minds, 
limited knowledge, and ignorant of the vocabulary 
of geographical terms, are required to look round, 
and through the whole solar system, and over 
every part of the habitable or uninhabitable earth. 
The whole of creation, as far as man's vision or 
imaginatioaever went, is brought at the same time 
before the unexpanded infant mind. The present 
system of teaching geography requires the child to 
grasp this "huge globe" with all its myriads of 
animate and inanimate , existences, and the innu- 
merable bodies in the heavens with all their splen- 
dour and sublimity. These are all presented at 
once. The mind is confused, lost ; and by direct- 
ing the eye towards objects far beyond our vision, 
we remain ignorant of the things around us, and 
never behold those in the distance. This evil 
arises from the books now in use in most of our 
schools. Books to remedy it have lately been pub- 
lished, but as yet are not generally introduced in 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 169 

schools a little remote from cities or large vil- 
lages. This necessary stretch of mind soon fatigues 
the pupil, and the multiplicity of objects prevents 
any one from appearing clear and distinct. 

Thirdly, scholars learn the definitions of the 
names of places, but do not form any idea of their 
situation and appearance. For example, — "A bay 
is a portion of water extending up into the land," 
is repeated by the pupil ; but not in one instance 
out of five hundred is there any idea of the position 
of this body of water. Scholars commit their 
lessons in geography in the same manner they do 
their lesson in the catechism or their tables. They 
are never told that this language describes objects 
and places. The study is a business of merely re- 
membering words, when it should be that of con- 
ceiving distant objects and places. The child does 
not (as geography is now taught) make a transfer 
of the mind to the things described, but directs his 
whole energies in fixing the words of the book in 
the memory. Thus the study of geography is 
little more than reciting from memory a number 
of words and sentences in the order of the book, 
having no meaning to them whatever. 

Fourthly, the representations of places and ob- 
jects on the map, by marks, lines, and spaces, do 
not cause the child to conceive their true position, 
appearance, and location. The language of the 
map has no more resemblance (or if any, not enough 
to be of any assistance to the pupil) to the 
things it represents than the language of the book. 

P 



170 DISTRICT SCHOOL 

What similarity is there between a shade on the 
map and a mountain ? What is there in the former 
that can give the mind any idea of the shape and 
magnitude of the latter ? Again, what proportion 
in the spaces between places on the map and the 
spaces between places they represent ? An inch 
in one place, and it may be one hundred or one 
thousand miles in the other. Maps, then, give no 
idea of the contiguity or remoteness of places to 
the young pupil. They may to a more mature, 
experienced mind ; one that can form some idea 
of the proportion between the one and the other ; 
but the scholar does not, cannot measure by this 
artificial relation. The teacher, then, must assist 
the learner where language and maps necessarily 
fail ; but the maps and the language of the book, 
to the teacher represent and describe objects and 
places so well, that he can form a correct concep- 
tion of them. He supposes the child can do the 
same 5 not thinking that it is a new language to the 
young beginner, and one that has no resemblance 
to the things described or represented; or if the 
resemblance of the map does offer a little help, it is 
not enough to transport the mind of the pupil to 
the place or object in question, and give any true 
conception. He therefore does not come down 
and aid the pupil where other helps end, and his 
scholars learn geograpfty without making any appli- 
cation of it to the earth ! ! 

Fifthly, there is too much said of dress, and fash- 
ions, and manners, and people 5 it leads the pupils 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 17l 

to think of persevvs, and not of places. Geography 
should he studied for the purpose of becoming ac- 
quainted with the surface of the earth. It is, in 
fact, a description of this part of our planet. Its 
mountains, rivers, lakes, islands, oceans, and conti- 
nents should be particularly attended to. The 
smaller and the greater artificial divisions, and the 
varied products, and the broad characteristics in ani- 
mals and men in the different climates of the earth, 
should be made known by the study of geography. 
But instead of these noble, heart-stirring subjects, 
which fill the mind with all that is grand and 
beautiful, varied and harmonious, the frivolities of 
fashions^ the oddities of manners and customs, and 
the petty differences of nations, lead away the 
mind, and direct the attention to that which is of 
little comparative value, and soon lost from the 
memory. Geography, too, often becomes the 
biography of the human race, or takes the place 
of history? and relates the doings of men and na- 
tions. But the object of geography is space, not 
time — the actual appearance of things as they now 
are. 

By not perceiving the legitimate subjects and 
objects of geography, a multiplicity of things is 
placed tefore the mind, and prevents it from ob- 
taining that degree of knowledge of any one place 
or subject which would make it interesting. In 
this ease little can be said of each object, and the 
attention is so soon diverted that there is nothing 
fixed in the memory. The result is, that all the 



172 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

time and labour has been lost — worse than lost — 
spent in forming bad habits. 

These are some of the difficulties and errors 
which I have met with among scholars pursuing 
the study of geography in our district schools. I 
admit that these evils are serious ; yet I believe 
that a remedy may be had and applied to each of 
them. If the late improvements in books and 
maps, in connexion with a globe, and the assistance 
of a well-qualified teacher, should be introduced 
into the schools, the difficulties, which now make 
the study of little value, would happily disappear. 
These changes can be made if parents feel the im- 
portance of educating their children. A* suitable 
globe may be purchased for one dollar. This 
would be sufficient for the whole school, and would 
last, with proper care, at least two years. Thus 
a district may, for fifty cents a year, furnish their 
school with that which is indispensably necessary 
to the study of geography, and for the want of 
which so many difficulties and errors have been 
encountered to discourage and deceive the scholars 
in this simple, delightful study. Books, which are 
not merely changes, but real improvements, may be 
had for the same price that is paid for those now 
in use in many of the schools; and qualified 
teachers, even if the wages are increased fourfold, 
are always the cheapest. There is nothing neces- 
sarily preventive of the profitable study of geogra- 
phy in our common schools. 

I will describe the method of teaching geogra- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 173 

phy which is now generally approved of, and 
adopted by our most able and experienced teachers. 
Children five or six years old may commence this 
study with advantage. At this age they have 
learned the names of some of the objects which 
are included in geography ; and though it be but a 
very small portion, yet they have seen a part of 
the surface of the earth. On this small part, and 
with the few natural objects their limited range 
has made them acquainted with, they should com- 
mence this comprehensive study. The rivulet or 
river that flows by the side or near their dwelling, 
— the mountain or the vale that may be seen from 
the window? or by a short walk or ride, — the 
boundaries of a field or farm? or their native town* 
which may be traced in person by a little travel- 
ling, may be viewed and described by the child, 
and these made to furnish its first lessons. Having 
seen the flowing stream of water which his book 
calls a river, and the high mass of earth or rocks 
which is called a mountain, and the landmarks or 
fences which divide fields and farms, and from 
these conceiving the invisible lines which divide 
towns, counties, and states, he is prepared to form 
a eorrect idea of those objects and places which 
he will see represented on his map, and read de- 
scriptions of in the book, but which he has never 
visited. By commencing the study in this way, 
he has a visible definition of that new vocabulary 
of words and terms which he will meet in hi$ 
geography. 

P2 



174 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

When the pupil is familiar with the position and 
distances of a few natural objects, and can describe 
their appearance, he should be required to draw a 
map, and represent them by marks on his slate or 
blackboard. Of course, these will be rude sketches 
at first ; bat let. there be suitable instruction from 
the teacher, and repeated trials, till a pretty correct 
outline is formed.' 

In the first place, let the pupil draw a map of 
his room ; representing its outlines, its benches and 
chairs, the stove and fireplace, the instructer's desk, 
&c. When there is some likeness in this sketch, 
let the map be enlarged, and take in the school- 
house, the play-grounds, and the fields, and the 
more prominent objects in the immediate vicinity. 
Let such lines and marks be used to represent ob-. 
jects and places, now under the eye of the pupil, 
as are used on the map to represent similar places 
and objects which the pupil has never seen. After 
there has been sufficient instruction and practice 
on this enlarged sketch to give it some likeness to 
the original, let a map be drawn which embraces 
the neighbouring river, or creek, and mountain, 
and adjacent farms. Let lines representing the 
roads, the boundaries of fields, and the streams of 
water, be delineated with proportion, and in the 
right place ; and let marks for the natural and 
artificial lines and objects have their right shape 
and position. A mere outline, including some of 
the most conspicuous objects, is all that should be 
required at this stage of the study. The pupil now 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 175 

knows the use of a map, and has taken the first 
steps in learning to execute one which shall repre- 
sent any part of the earth. With a little assistance 
from a pleasant teacher, this may be made a most 
delightful exercise for young pupils. 

The most pleasing and correct method of study- 
ing geography, or, what is the same thing, the sur- 
face of the earth, would be to visit in person every 
place and object upon the globe. As this is more 
than one could do, even by spending his whole 
life in travelling, and as the greater part who 
wish to pursue this study have the privilege of 
travelling over but a very small part of this earth, 
some other means must be taken to obtain in- 
formation of places w T hich they will never see. 
The only means, except going to places ourselves, 
are the close study of those books which have been 
written by many learned travellers, or people re- 
siding in the different parts of the world, and which 
contain a description of the objects, beings, and 
surface of the earth. The best book among this 
class is the geography, accompanied by a map, the 
latter having such a representation of the earth 
that you may cast your eye over the figure of its 
great surface at once. By a close attention to this 
geography and map, you can, it may almost be 
said, visit every spot on the earth which would be 
worth your notice. They are the stages and ships 
of the mind, which, leaving the body at home, carry 
the mind around and over the whole earth. You 
.should take a passage: and if, in passing along, some 



176 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

remarkable object or place is pointed out, examine 
it well, that you may be able to describe it to others, 
whose minds have staid at home as well as their 
bodies. 

A map, now, of the native state should be drawn, 
and all the information had concerning it which the 
pupil can obtain from the geography. The towns 
and counties should be shown on the map, and 
some of the most remarkable natural and artificial 
objects. A map of the United States may be drawn 
in outline, and the scholar permitted to get some 
general knowledge of each state. These outlines 
may be sketched on large slates, or, what is better, 
on a blackboard ; the scholar having a map before 
him for his guide. I know of no exercise so bene- 
ficial to the pupil as that of drawing maps. It 
develops those faculties which make a well-pro- 
portioned mind. The memory, to bring back to 
the attention whatever we may have learned con- 
cerning the place the pencil is delineating — con- 
ception, to bring vividly before the mind that which 
the map represents— the imagination, in combining 
the individual elements of nature — abstraction, in 
separating various objects and facts from each other 
—comparison, in painting a likeness on the map- 
reason, in discerning the connexions of objects, 
and the relations of the parts to the whole — taste, 
in the close examination of nature, that we may 
give a true likeness, and imagination, by sending 
out the mind to the most distant part of the earth, 
are all in constant exercise, making that just pro- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 177 

portion and beautiful symmetry so desirable in 
every mind. 

Each state should now be taken up separately 
by the scholar, and made familiar to his mind, till 
the study of all the states in the Union has been 
thorough and minute. When this is done, the 
teacher should make the scholars acquainted with 
the globe, if he has one, and if not he can use some 
round substance as a substitute. The figure and 
motions of the earth, with its natural and artificial 
divisions, are what the scholars require to know. 
They now see the cause of day and night ; the 
great quantity of water on the earth ; the two 
continents ; the position of islands and lakes, and 
the situation of the United States in the Western 
Continent. After several lectures from the teacher 
on the globe, the scholars should direct their atten- 
tion to Canada and Mexico, and then to South 
America. Then the oceans and seas should be 
studied; their situation, comparative size, their 
motions, inhabitants, and use, made known to the 
inquiring mind. There should now be daily refer- 
ence to the globe. The use of the lines of latitude 
and longitude, and the equator should be seen, and 
their assistance received in learning the distances 
and positions of places. The agreement between 
the map and the globe should be seen. 

The teacher should be careful that the scholars 
learn the direction of places from the map. From 
a neglect here, scholars who are considered pro- 
ficients in geography do not know whether Eng- 



1*78 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

land is north, east, west, or south from them. 
They should take such views on the globe, that 
they will know at once the direction or point of 
compass of any place on the earth. If the teacher 
will direct the attention of the class to this par- 
ticular point, they will learn the relative situation 
of countries in a short time. This is necessary to 
be known on many accounts. News is coming 
from every quarter every day ; and when a place 
is mentioned, the position and direction should be 
instantly conceived. • I have often seen scholars, 
who had been " through the geography," and yet 
did not know whether Maine was east or south ; 
Virginia, south or west. This ignorance of direc- 
tion is great, and should have the especial attention 
of the teacher. The distances of places, likewise, 
should be taught ; the length and breadth of the 
state ; the number of miles to the most noted 
places, and the distances between them should be 
familiar to the pupil. This is seldom the case; 
but it is useful and important knowledge. The 
boundaries of the states should be so familiar to 
the mind that the position of each one would occur 
immediately. A map of all the countries in Eu- 
rope should be drawn, and the geography of each 
attentively studied, as the scholar may have time. 
Asia should come next, followed by Africa. The 
particular attainments and age of the pupil must 
direct the discriminating teacher. No directions 
but those which are very general can be given. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 179 

I would, however, earnestly recommend the in- 
ductive method which I have described. I am 
satisfied, that from the constitution of the mind, and 
the nature of the study, it is the best. It is like- 
wise adopted by our most experienced teachers ; 
and I hope will soon be received wherever 
geography is taught. 



SECTION XIV. 

THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 

From this science very little is obtained in our 
district schools, which is of any practical use. 
There is much compulsive, uncertain, and laborious 
study of arithmetic ; but it is often in vain, from the 
manner in which it is taught, since the scholar gets 
but very little in return for his labour that is valu- 
able or practical* Those who have received no- 
thing more than a common school education, ob- 
tain their practical knowledge of the science of 
numbers, not from their instructions or study in 
school, but from their own invention, and the re- 
wards of experience. There is in the country but 
a small quantity of arithmetic in use which came 
from the schools ; necessity has taught the people 



180 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

what they ought to have learned at school when 
young, and when they were wasting so much time 
and money to no purpose. After making such 
observations as justify these assertions, and reflect- 
ing on the misapplication of so much time and 
effort, it is natural to inquire why this is so. 

Are the books in use filled with unintelligible 
rules and impracticable examples ? Do the teachers 
omit the practical application of the principles they 
teach ? or do the scholars but half know what they 
have the credit of having learned ? To each of 
these inquiries we may reply, to a great extent, in the 
affirmative. Books now in use at a little distance 
from cities and large villages, in which, indeed, 
some improvements have appeared within a few 
years, are blind and difficult to the scholars, and 
present the art of calculating by numbers in an un- 
natural, discouraging form. The magnitude of the 
examples is so great that the child forms no cor- 
rect idea of the numbers which constitute them. 
The reasoning from them, therefore, the child can- 
not comprehend. These examples, likewise, are 
abstract numbers. The child's mind is not pre- 
pared for perceiving abstract numbers and quanti- 
ties with sufficient clearness and distinctness to be 
able to connect them with practical examples, the 
only use any one can make of them which is of any 
value. The pupil's mind is perplexed and wearied 
with these large, unmeaning examples, which he 
considers altogether useless, and without any practi- 
cal connexion whatever. This is the first idea 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. !8l 

which is obtained from the arithmetic; and it 
generally goes along with them until they relinquish 
the unpleasant study. In most cases the figures 
are new to the child, and the quantities they 
represent he can form no conception of; and a 
darker, more disagreeable study, the pupil hopes 
he never will have to undertake. Such is the com- 
mencement (from the nature of the first lessons of 
the books now in use) of the study of arithmetic* . 
What the child dislikes at first, it seldom becomes 
fond of afterwards. 

The first step being but imperfectly understood, 
the pupil is not fitted to take the second, and con- 
sequently, from being unable to help himself, re- 
quires the aid of the teacher. The teacherVex- 
planations do not assist him, for he is not prepared 
for them on this point — he does not understand 
the first step. The instructer supposes the pupil 
stupid, and the pupil thinks that he has attempted 
what is too difficult for him to comprehend. 
The third step is tried, but with less success, 
for in the science of numbers the after steps al- 
ways require a knowledge of those which have 
gone before. In this manner the scholar is forced a 
short distance into the arithmetic without knowing 
where he is, or what he is doing. The whole is a 
mystery, for in reality nothing has been learned. 

The teacher requires the scholars to commit the 
rules to memory, but never gives or demands a 
single reason for one of them. The pupil has not 
understood the examples — knows nothing about 

Q 



182 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the facts upon which the rules are founded ; and 
of course does not understand the rule, or see any 
direction or application in it. The teacher is 
peremptory for the memoriter recitation of the 
rule, and the scholar, after many accusations of his 
memory, and much protracted labour, is able (from 
the mere association of words, for he has not, during 
the hundred readings, got an idea)" to repeat the 
rule without the book. I have frequently met 
with some of the larger scholars who could 
promptly and accurately repeat every rule in the 
arithmetic, and yet not able to apply in practical 
life the most simple one, nor did they know one 
reason for any of them. How can they expect 
that such knowledge will be of any use ? The 
great thing aimed at with teachers, seems to be 
the ready recitation of the rule from memory, rather 
than the ready application of it to practical pur- 
poses. 

The tables, also, which ought to be committed 
before any progress is attempted, are either en- 
tirely overlooked, or less than half learned. The 
child is at work in the rule of multiplication, and 
does not know how many four multiplied by four 
make. Every time he multiplies he is sent to the 
multiplication table. This constant reference to 
that which he ought to know, interrupts his opera- 
tions — he forgets the last step he took, and on ex- 
amination the sum is wrong. In this manner he 
goes through the rule ; and still ignorant of the 
table. He is, perhaps, ciphering in the compound 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 183 

rules, but does not know one of the tables of 
weights and measures ! If any thing is done, there 
must be a constant turning back to the tables : 
and there they should keep till they know them. In 
the every-day transactions of business, these tables 
are required, but the pupils have never learned 
them, and are thus compelled to spend considerable 
time in hunting up a book that will inform them, or 
to make confession of their ignorance, and beg the 
knowledge from some one of the company — a 
shameful resort, indeed, for one who has had the 
opportunity of acquiring this necessary knowledge. 
If the tables had been thoroughly learned at first, 
there would not have been this delay and embar- 
rassment in working the sum in the school-room, 
or in transacting the necessary business of life out 
of it. But few scholars graduate at our district 
schools, who are able to recite the one-twentieth part 
of the tables. They are consequently unprepared 
for the most common transactions in practical life. 
There is another defect found in nearly every 
school. The scholar has been labouring on a sum 
for some time, but cannot get it right. He carries 
it to the teacher, who takes the slate to himself 
and does the sum, the scholar at the same time 
looking at something else. The slate is returned 
with the sum done out, and the boy takes his seat. 
Does he now examine the work of the teacher* 
and see what was done to obtain the answer? 
Not at all. Why ? Did the teacher explain it to 
him? No. Has he any more knowledge of the 



184 DISTRICT SCHOOL 

sum now than he had before he went to the in*- 
structer ? No. What does he do then ? Why y 
he rubs out the sum and proceeds to the next. He 
has got over ih, he has gained so much towards the 
end of the book ; whether he can do the sum or 
not is of no consequence to him or trouble to the 
teacher. Such, it is frequently seen, is the indif- 
ference of the teacher, and the superficiality of the 
scholar. 

In the books on the subject of arithmetic now in 
general use in district schools, the scholar meets 
with but few practical examples. Their nature, 
and the form in which they are presented, differ 
widely from the examples which occur in the 
affairs of life. The youth, not seeing that the 
general, leading principles are the same in both 
cases, knows not how to apply the knowledge of 
the school-room as an assistant in his calculations 
when abroad. I have known lads who have 
"gone through" the arithmetic, requested, while 
standing by the counter, to ascertain the amount 
of several articles of goods, or yards of cloth, 
which they, or their mother, or their sister have 
just been purchasing, but would' hesitate, and 
finally mention a sum which they had no certainty of 
the correctness of, and after all take the merchant's 
account with not even practical knowledge suffi- 
cient to examine it. 

Why should this be so ? Two reasons. The 
books are deficient in practical exercises, and the 
teacher does not direct the scholar's mind from the 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 18& 

abstract principles and examples of the book ta 
their practical use. If the teacher had frequently 
proposed such sums as occurred in the store, the 
scholar would know how to go to work, his expe-. 
rience would give him facility and correctness* 
and the instruction of the teacher would always be 
present for his assistance. Teachers do not bring 
enough of the sales and purchases, the measurements 
and calculations of the world into the school-room., 
When a scholar has learned a general principle, or 
an abstract proposition, the teacher should see 
whether or not the scholar can make any use of it* 
— whether he can show its practical bearing, and 
apply it to the every-day business going on in the 
world. But this is seldom done, and the scholar 
is little benefited. 

If a promiscuous sum is given to a lad taught 
in this manner, he does not examine the nature of 
the sum, and find out the relations of its parts, and; 
the first steps necessary to be taken, but immedi- 
ately tries to find an analogy between it and some 
one which he has been told how to work. The 
sum does not suggest its appropriate rule, and he 
knows not what one to apply. After doubtfully, 
and probably incorrectly, trying one rule, and then 
another, and then a third, he gives up in despair j 
the sum is laid aside, or worked out by the teacher*, 
never to be looked at by the scholar. 

These are some of the errors in the present 
systems of teaching arithmetic. The reasons why 
scholars obtain so little that is of any practical ujsq 



186 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

from this branch of knowledge in our district 
schools, can now, we think, be clearly perceived. 
I will now give some directions, that some of these 
errors, at least, may be avoided, and that the 
science of arithmetic may be made pleasant and 
useful. 

When a child begins to use its senses, the first 
thing, probably, which takes its attention, is the 
figure or form of material objects. The next thing 
noticed is number, or the existence of many sepa- 
rate individual objects. Thus the child learns to 
count a few of the first numbers very early, gene- 
rally before it knows the names of the letters. 
Having the idea of number, and being able ta 
count a short distance, it is constantly making 
small calculations. These operations are per- 
formed on their playthings, and other visible, tan- 
gible objects which draw their attention. They 
add one quantity or number to another r they take 
one quantity from another, and they divide a quan- 
tity into several parts. The method which chil- 
dren take to perform these mental operations is 
not always the most expeditious, and hence the 
necessity of giving them instructions in what they 
are delightfully and naturally engaged in. It will 
not do to give them rules at first. The judicious 
parent or instructer will encourage these natural 
operations, performed in whatever manner Nature 
may direct. After they are able to view what 
they have done, and reflect upon these calcula- 
tions, some defects should be pointed out, and some 



BrSTHICT SCHOOL. ?8T 

improvements suggested. Such encouragement 
and direction will enable children, at an early age? 
to form a great variety of combinations of numbers. 
At this age the mind may be assisted by sensible 
objects. Abstract quantities or numbers, the child 
cannot distinctly comprehend ; a visible, tangible 
sign should be used to represent them. 

As soon as the child is familiar with the exam- 
ples which come under the four simple rules, ad- 
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, he 
may commit a brief comprehensive rule for each. 
These rules being founded on the very operations 
he has already made and understands, have a 
meaning in them, and they will give him more 
accuracy and expedition. Beans, or nuts, or any 
small objects which children may handle, can be 
used to represent the abstract numbers. For ex- 
ample, the child has five chestnuts, and we wish to 
make it perform the operation of taking two from 
five, and then telling the remainder. We take 
away two of the chestnuts, and ask it how many 
it now has. The reply is three. Then two from 
five, how many remain ? The child answers 
readily, three. An answer it would not have 
given if there had not been a visible illustration 
of the quantity taken away and the quantity left. 
By increasing the number of the chestnuts, and 
then dividing them among several individuals, in- 
volved questions in addition and division may be 
answered. These visible, tangible signs may be 



188 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

made to represent almost any proportion or rela- 
tion in the combinations of numbers. The propor- 
tion of the Rule of Three may be seen at a glance. 
Let three chestnuts be placed by the side of six 
others, and four more by the side of eight others. 
The child then sees that three are to six as four 
are to eight ; or, in the words of the abstract rule, 
the first term is to the second as the third is to the 
fourth ; or, let us take three quantities : three chest- 
nuts are placed by the side of six others, and these 
six by the side of twelve. Now, the child sees 
that three are to six as six are to twelve. By this 
means, that proportion, at the glance of the eye, is 
made known, which is seldom perceived by work- 
ing every example under the rule. Visible, tangi- 
ble signs in the hands of an ingenious, judicious: 
teacher, may greatly simplify and facilitate the ac- 
quisition of knowledge. They may be used with 
advantage in geometry and the still higher branches 
of mathematics. Care, though, should be taken that 
these sensible signs are not carried too far. There 
is danger when too much dependance is placed 
upon them, of making the mind averse to deep, 
abstract thought; thus preventing the discipline 
it should always acquire in this study. They 
should not prevent the mind from thinking — they 
should make it think clearly. 

After the pupil can perform w T ith ease a few ex- 
amples in each of these simple rules, the multiplica- 
tion table should be learned. This is always a 
great task to scholars. It is with difficulty they 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 189 

keep their minds fixed upon the numbers, and they 
generally forget one line while studying the next. 
This discourages them, and they now try to leara 
the whole at once. For days, and weeks, and 
months, and frequently years they read it over and 
over, but yet are unable to fix it in the memory. 
I have known scholars imbued with a thorough 
hatred to the whole science of numbers, from the 
difficulty they found in committing the multiplica- 
tion table. Now all of this difficulty is occasioned 
by not being made to master one part at once ; by 
running carelessly over the whole with the eyes 
or the organs of speech, and the mind directed to 
something else, or wandering without any object' 
in view. If the pupil would have patience to con- 
fine himself to one part, and commit that thoroughly 
to-day; and to-morrow another small part; and 
the next day a little more, he would in a weekV 
time so fix the whole table in his memory, that it 
would always be ready for his use. The multipli- 
cation table is easily learned, if scholars will study 
right; and this should be the business of the teacher 
to oversee. The whims of children on this subject 
have too much latitude in our district schools. 
The memory has not been exercised, and the effort 
is new and almost always difficult to be made r 
but the teacher should remember that disciplining" 
the mind is as much his duty to his scholars as im- 
parting information. The habit should now be 
formed of continued, fixed concentration of mind 
to one object. When the scholars are committing^ 



190 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the tables, the teacher has a fine opportunity of 
commencing this discipline ; and he is culpable if 
he does not improve it. 

When the multiplication table is familiar to the 
memory, the pupil may be permitted to work the 
examples under the simple rules, as far as the com- 
pound rules. Here the pupil must stop, and learn 
the tables of weights and measures. A knowledge 
of these will not only be necessary to understand 
and perform the examples under the compound 
rules, but absolutely necessary in the business of 
after-life. To know how many gills make a pint; 
how many inches a foot, and feet a yard, and 
miles a furlong or degree, is required of every 
one who lives in the society of men. These tables 
are generally learned so superficially, that the 
scholar has forgotten them by the time he has 
gone through the next rule in advance. 

When the pupils can say them forwards, or back- 
wards, or any other way chance may present them, 
let examples which come under the tables be given 
to the scholars. Working these will recall the 
tables, and give the pupils an opportunity of seeing 
their use and application. The teacher should give 
the class practical sums, not found in the book, 
requiring a knowledge of these weights and mea- 
sures. After the compound rules and reduction are 
mastered, the pupils may advance to those more 
complicated. It should always be the aim of the 
teacher, when, questions are asked by the pupil, to 
$sk such other questions as will enable the pupil to 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 191 

answer his own. Knowledge which we discover 
ourselves is more acceptable and useful than that 
which others tell us. The teacher should explain the 
rules, show their application, and then throw the 
scholar upon their direction. He should strive to 
make the pupil think for himself, and believe that 
the book is all the assistance he wants, which gene- 
rally is the case with the late improved ones. If 
the pupil is not assisted by the rule, a second ex- 
planation must take place. No part should be 
passed over not understood. 

Some of the rules of the arithmetic have a more 
direct application with the labouring classes of 
society than others. These should receive a "par- 
ticular attention. The simple rules, compound 
rules, rule of three direct, and interest, are among 
this number. A knowledge of them will make men 
ready and accurate. Under these the teacher 
should multiply practical examples, making them 
familiar in every shape. 

And, lastly, teachers should aim at rapidity of 
operation in all of the arithmetical exercises. It 
is a great advantage to do a sum quickly, as well 
as accurately. Great rapidity in numerical cal- 
culations may be attained by exercising ourselves 
in thinking quickly. This habit, likewise, will ac- 
custom the mind to be active on other subjects. 
Thus the two legitimate objects of the science will 
be gained, useful knowledge and mental discipline. 



192 DISTRICT SCHOOB. 



SECTION XV. 

^tHE BEST METHOD OP TEACHING GRAMMAR, 

Grammar may be termed the science of lan- 
guage ; and language, in the most extensive sense, 
is the instrument or means of communicating ideas 
and affections of the mind and body from one ani- 
mal to another. The language of brutes is inarti- 
culate sounds, but the language of man is articulate 
sounds and written signs or characters. These 
characters are combined into words, and when 
brought before the eye (from the common consent 
of men and common usage) represent to us the 
ideas of others. When these elementary characters 
or letters are united into words and inscribed on 
paper, or any substance which receives their form, 
they are called a written language. Grammar, 
then, as a science, treats of the natural connexion 
between these words, and makes known the prin- 
ciples which are common to all languages. These 
principles, upon which the grammar of a language 
is founded, are not arbitrary or variable, but fixed 
and universal. They are formed from the natural, 
permanent phenomena of the language in the same 
way that the principles of Natural Philosophy are 
formed from the phenomena of nature. The author 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 193 

of a grammar collects these facts and phenomena 
of a language, and from them forms the principles 
which make the science of the language. 

The grammarian sees in every language several 
classes of words of the same nature ; to each class 
he gives a name. For instance, words which re- 
present things, or whatever we may form a notion 
of, he calls nouns. Another class he calls verbs, 
another adjectives, and he finally perceives in the 
English language and names nine classes of words. 
Their natural distinctions are always seen, and 
make what is called the nine parts of speech. 

Again, these classes of words have various rela- 
tions to each other, and are sometimes modified by 
what they represent. These relations and modifi- 
cations give rise to what grammarians call number, 
case, mood, tense, &c. Every individual has the 
same opportunity of observing these facts and 
phenomena in a language, that the individual had 
who wrote the grammar. The author examined 
the language as it is, and has given you what he 
discovered. He has written out a science which 
is so obvious to all, and at the same time so simple, 
that any one may learn it ; and they may not only 
learn it, but they may make a practical use of it ; 
for the whole object of the science is to enable every 
person to write and speak with ease, force, and 
correctness. 

To do this is very desirable to all. Every per- 
son must use language, and when it is used well, 
there is a force and beauty given to the ideas which 

R 



194 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

they otherwise would never have. Thus grammar 
becomes an important study to all. Without this 
study men will use either too many or too few 
words in expressing their ideas — they will use 
those which do not mean what they intend to say ; 
or those which express more or not as much as 
they mean. They will put words in the wrong 
place, making their ideas obscure or unintelligible ; 
and thus they will always employ that powerful 
instrument, by which they act upon the minds of 
others in an awkward, disagreeable, and powerless 
manner. 

I am aware that grammar has been considered 
a difficult subject, especially to younger scholars. 
But I apprehend that most of the difficulties have 
arisen rather from the manner it has been taught, 
than from the nature of the science. He who can 
bring two things together and see whether they 
are alike or unlike, and understand a thing, and 
perceive its qualities and relations to other things 
it may stand connected with, may learn the gram- 
mar of his language, and be able to make use of 
what he has learned, whenever there is an occa- 
sion of speaking or writing. 1 know how dry and 
useless scholars in our common schools have found 
this study. The custom is for all to study gram- 
mar, yet, as far as I have examined, I have never 
met with many scholars, educated in the district 
schools, who were benefited in the least. Nearly 
every pupil could repeat the grammar from begin- 
ning to end with great fluency. It was manifest 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 195 

that in all their study on the grammar they had exer- 
cised no other faculty than the memory. They had 
been taught to consider their grammar as something 
which required to be committed, and nothing more. 

Years had been spent in doing this, and yet 
the scholar was just as unable to distinguish a part 
of speech, to apply a rule, or construct a sentence, 
as if he had spent the whole of that time in com- 
mitting to memory words and sentences to which 
he could connect no meaning whatever. The 
scholars had spent months, and more frequently 
years, in parsing, but had used the dictionary to 
find out what part of speech the word in question 
was, and then guessed its modification and gov- 
ernment. If they guessed what the teacher con- 
sidered as right, they went on, and nothing further 
was said ; if the guessing was wrong, the teacher 
corrected them, and the only manifestation they 
had to give of understanding why they were wrong 
and the teacher right, was their ability to repeat 
the teacher's correction, and then pass on to guess- 
ing out the next word. Thus the time which 
scholars devote to the study of grammar in our 
common schools, is spent in committing to memory 
and parsing by guess. 

Now why does not committing the grammar 
to memory qualify the scholar for distinguish- 
ing parts of speech; for seeing their relations 
to each other, and for perceiving their government ? 
Why does he not parse with some correctness, with 
some certainty of the truth of what he is saying ? 
Is the grammar which he has committed good for 



196 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

nothing ? or has he not mental capacity sufficient 
to understand it ? or has he been taught to under- 
stand what he has been learning, and make a 
practical use of it ? We believe the fault is sug- 
gested by the last question ; though the books are 
not faultless, for the best system we have seen may 
be improved either in its definitions or arrange- 
ment, or its adaptation to the youthful mind; 
and we know, too, that some have commenced the 
study too young, or with minds not sufficiently cul- 
tivated ; but the main cause of scholars not deriving 
any benefit from studying grammar, is their not 
understanding the rules and definitions they have 
learned. 

Scholars seldom know even the object of gram- 
mar. How can they know what application to 
make of it ? But few teachers know how to assist 
the pupil in the study of grammar. The most of 
them do not understand it themselves, and it can- 
not be expected that they will give what they do 
not possess. I know of nothing in which our dis- 
trict schools are so defective as they are in the 
art of teaching grammar. An entire change is 
necessary in the system now adopted. The study, 
instead of exercising only the memory by com- 
mitting the words and sentences of the book, and 
the organs of speech by pronouncing after the 
teacher, should appeal to the judgment, and to what 
has already been learned, for assistance in making 
farther progress. We think the study of grammar, 
if rightly taught, is level with the capacities of 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 197 

scholars in our district schools at an early age, 
To get a practical knowledge of the science is not 
difficult ; the disputed points in the philosophy of 
the language may be, but these do not belong to 
the learner. Scholars are constantly violating the 
plain simple rules of their language, and the object 
of their attending to the grammar is to obtain that 
knowledge of the construction of the language 
which will enable them to avoid this 7 inaccuracy, 
so offensive to good taste, and so disgraceful to its 
author. 

That the study may become a pleasant and 
profitable employment to all who engage in it, I 
will describe a system which has been thoroughly 
tested, and is now adopted by eminent teachers. 
It has been my lot to study grammar in the same 
way it is now r taught in the district schools, and I 
am confident that I learned nothing which was of 
any benefit to me. I know that it was alw T ays a 
dark, uncertain, disagreeable study, disliked by the 
pupils, and avoided as much as possible by the 
teacher. I have, likewise, personally observed the 
practice of the system that I am now about to re- 
commend, and shall have the advantage of speak- 
ing from experience. 

When a scholar opens his grammar, he meets 
(after a few preliminary remarks) with the names 
of nine parts of speech, or classes of words. These 
names or words are entirely new to him — he has 
never met with them before, and he of course has 
but a mere conjecture of what they mean. By 
R2 



198 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

looking farther, he sees these technical terms de- 
fined. He reads or commits to memory the defi- 
nition ; but the definition has by no means given a 
full, distinct idea of the meaning of the term. 
There are two reasons why the definitions have 
failed in doing that for which they were intended. 
The first is, the definitions in the grammars now 
in use are miserably deficient within themselves. 
They either include words which are unintelligible 
to the scholar, or are of so abstract a nature, or so 
complicated, that they are as blind and as unmean- 
ing as the technical term itself. The great im- 
portance of giving correct definitions to this art 
has never been duly appreciated. There are in 
these nine parts of speech, the noun, the article, 
the adjective, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, 
the preposition, the conjunction, and interjection, 
proper and natural differences ; and the best way 
of preparing the young mind to distinguish these 
diflerencesjs to tell in a clear, direct manner what 
these terms are. Unless he has a true perception 
of the thing, and can tell what it is, he will not 
know how to distinguish it from that which may 
have some resemblance. These defective defini- 
tions cause great indistinctness in getting the 
meaning of these first elements which constitute 
the science. 

The second reason is, scholars, from their 
previous habits of study, do not suppose they can 
understand what they read. They have never 
been required to do this :. in learning to spell, they 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 19£ 

pronounced words without connecting with them 
any meaning ; and they have learned to read or 
pronounce words in sentences without attaching 
any meaning ; and they now in like manner pro- 
nounce the words which make the definitions of 
the grammatical terms, without even thinking they 
have a meaning which ought to be perceived and 
understood by them. 

Now, that a scholar may commence right, he 
should have an accurate, distinct definition of each 
part of speech. If the book does not make the 
definition of the term clear and intelligible to the 
pupil, the teacher should do this by examples and 
illustration. The teacher should also see that the 
pupil thinks of what he is saying, and that he under- 
stands what the words mean. Let the instructer 
select a noun (and this should be done when the 
scholar first commences the study, not after he has 
committed, as the usual practice is, the whole 
grammar), and request the pupil to tell the part of 
speech : this the pupil will generally do, if he un- 
derstands the meaning of the word that is selected, 
and the definition of a noun. If he does not under- 
stand the meaning of both, he will only guess; 
there will be no certainty. And here can be seen 
the reasons of so much guessing in the parsing exer- 
cises — ignorance of the sentiment they are parsings 
and of the definitions of the parts of speech. Let 
the teacher point out a large number of words 
which are names of things, or names of notions in 
the mind, and ask the pupils their part of speech* 



200 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

When they can readily distinguish a noun, let the 
teacher, to see if the scholars understand the defi- 
nition of the term noun, mention some words 
which belong to other parts of speech, and thus 
ascertain whether they can distinguish the noun 
from other words by its definition. Then the 
teacher should require the pupils to point out 
nouns, and tell why they are so. When they are 
accurate and ready in this exercise, the instructer 
should teach them to distinguish between the 
singular and plural numbers. This, as there are 
but two numbers, they will soon do. They should 
be told distinctly what made a noun singular and 
what plural. Then let them name nouns of each 
number. 

After this, let them learn the gender of nouns. 
Let them know what gender means, and require 
them to mention nouns in the masculine gender, 
and then some of the feminine, and others of the 
neuter gender. On this they should practise till 
the gender of any noun is perceived instantly ; and 
then they should know the distinction between 
proper and common nouns. After this the person 
of nouns should be attended to ; that the one that 
speaks is first person ; the one that is spoken to 
second person ; and the person or thing spoken 
of is third person. And lastly, in this first exer- 
cise with nouns, let their case be understood. Let 
them know that case means condition, and that 
this condition alters according to the relations the 
word may have to others in the same sentence. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 201 

Let these relations be seen, so that case will always 
be known. Now the scholars should parse the 
noun in its states. Let the words, for example, — 
" Father's house" be given. Let them tell the part 
of speech of father's ; whether a proper or common 
noun ; what gender ; what person ; what number ; 
and what case. Let them go through with the 
word house in the same way. This exercise on 
the noun should be continued for a considerable 
time. This is all interesting, and may be made in- 
telligible to small scholars. By this means they 
will understand the terms, and learn to think and 
discriminate between the several conditions of 
words of the same part of speech. 

At this point let the two articles be pointed out 
by the teacher, and the distinction between the two, 
and the nature and use of each made plain to the 
pupil. Let their position before nouns be seen,, 
and the general use of " an" instead of " a" before 
words beginning with a vowel. 

After this, let the class of words called adjectives 
be given to the pupils for their next lessons. Let 
the teacher show the class the nature of adjectives ; 
that they include those words which are added or 
joined to nouns for some purpose, generally to ex- 
press their quality. Let the scholars see that they 
have neither number, gender, or case ; that the ad- 
jective never changes, except in its degrees of com- 
parison; and that these degrees are three. Let 
a number of words from the class of adjectives bo 



202 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

shown to the class ; and they required to tell why 
they are in this class of words. 

Now the teacher should name the three parts 
of speech which the class have learned ; say, " a 
wise man/' and request the scholar to parse it. 
The scholars then say, that " a" is an indefinite 
article, and tell the reason, — that " wise" is an ad- 
jective, because it describes the qualities of " man." 
Then the pupil should be taught the formation and 
nature of the positive, comparative, and superlative 
degrees. When he understands these, he should 
put those in the positive state into the other states, 
and name the comparative and positive states of 
those he finds in the superlative. He should be 
exercised for some time in learning the nature of 
adjectives, and in changing them through their 
degrees. 

The class of words called " pronouns" should 
be attended to next. The scholars should know 
distinctly what a pronoun is,-— the difference be- 
tween the three kinds clearly perceived, and the 
appropriate use of this part of speech. The pupil 
now should be exercised in pointing out the words 
that belong to the class of pronouns, and likewise 
tell which are relative, and which are personal, 
and which are adjective. After sufficient exercise 
in this, the scholar may go to the " verbs." 

As this is a complicated part of speech, the 
teacher should proceed with order, distinctness, 
and thoroughness. Care should be taken to give 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 203 

the pupil a correct definition of the name, " verb." 
As nouns are names "of things, so verbs are the 
names of actions. 

Let a number of words belonging to the class 
of verbs be shown to the pupils ; let their use and 
nature be seen, and all the properties by which 
they differ from other parts of speech. The pupil 
should not, at present, attend to the distinctions 
between the active, passive, and neuter verbs, or 
the peculiarities of the irregular verbs. The 
simple definition of a verb, free from any of its 
modifications, is sufficient now to fix in the pupil's 
mind. The scholars may then be taught that 
verbs have person, number, mood, and tense. The 
last two words are new to them, and should be 
defined intelligibly. When they know the use of 
mood and tense by a variety of examples from the 
teacher, they should attend to the different moods 
and several tenses. There is so much technical 
phraseology in this part of all grammars, and the 
differences in the forms of the verb so nice and ab- 
stract, that the teacher will find it necessary to be 
copious in his examples, and ingenious in his 
illustrations. The pupil should conjugate one of 
the verbs through the active voice. In doing this, 
the appropriate form of the moods and tenses 
should be remembered. When the child is familiar 
with the active voice, let it attend to the passive, 
carefully comparing it with the active, and noting 
all the distinctions. After the conjugation of this, 
let the neuter verb be studied in the same way, 



204 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

Then the auxiliary verb "to have" and the 
irregular verbs may be learned. A little order 
and patience on the part of the student, and familiar 
illustration on the part of the teacher, will soon 
obtain the mastery of the verb. 

When this is done, let the nature and use of the 
" adverb" be the subject of the lesson. The words 
it qualifies, the several classes, &c, the pupil should 
distinctly see. Then the " prepositions," with their 
usual position, and their use in connecting words 
with one another by showing their relations. 
Then the "conjunction," with the distinction be- 
tween the copulative and disjunctive, and the use 
of each. And, lastly, the " interjection," serving to 
express the emotions of the speaker or writer. 

The pupil is now supposed to understand the 
terms that he is obliged to use in the study of 
grammar, and also to be acquainted with the nine 
sorts of speech, and their most usual modifica- 
tions. Much of the language of the grammar was 
entirely new to the scholar, and he may now con- 
sider himself as through the driest and most diffi- 
cult part. 

At this stage of the study, the pupils should be 
detained some time in acquiring readiness and ac- 
curacy in naming the different classes of words, 
and in putting them through their respective and 
various modifications. When this can be done 
without hesitating or missing, the pupil should 
learn and apply the rules of syntax. For this ex- 
ercise he is now prepared ; he can now see the 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 205 

reason of having rules. The facts and phenomena 
upon which the rules are founded he has been 
attending to ; he knows what gave rise to them, 
— how they were made, and their true use. 

By this method he has learned grammar in the 
same way that he acquired knowledge when 
Nature was his teacher; the particulars before the 
generals, the facts before the principles. To fill 
the mind with general rules, without knowing a 
reason for one of them,— to compel the pupil to give 
them without seeing their application, to load 
the memory with undefined terms,— to expect the 
pupil to discriminate between things which must 
and will appear to him to be the same, and to re* 
peat words for years without annexing to them 
one idea, is the present mode of teaching grammar. 
The system that I have now recommended, in the 
hands of a competent teacher, will secure interest 
to this science, and ensure practical knowledge from 
its study. 

When scholars see the properties, relations, and 
government of words, they should be exercised on 
false etymology; sentences of this nature being 
given to them for correction. The teacher should 
always make them give their reasons for the altera- 
tion. Then the scholars should examine sentences 
which present false syntax, The instructer should 
always watch for faulty sentences in the conver- 
sations or compositions of his pupils. When he 
detects any, their authors should be required to 
correct them by their knowledge of grammar, 

S 



206 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

The scholar should make constant use of this 
knowledge in correcting the bad grammar he will 
be sure to hear in every society ; and he himself 
should, after this, " write and speak with pro- 
priety." 



SECTION XVI. 

HISTORY SHOULD BE MADE A STUDY IN DISTRICT 
SCHOOLS. 

The American youth have sadly neglected the 
history of their country. I know of nothing so 
easily acquired, so highly important, so useful to 
all, and at the same time so thrilling in interest, 
concerning which the American people manifest so 
much ignorance. Many of those who have had the 
higher privileges of education are familiar with the 
histories of the nations of antiquity ; are well ac- 
quainted with the histories of the more distinguished 
nations of the present day ; and yet almost entirely 
ignorant of the history of their own people and 
country. Histories which are purchased and read 
are not histories of our forefathers ; but of foreign, 
remote nations, or those who are now gone from 
the earth. We turn our attention to the doings 
and sayings of other nations, as if there was nothing 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 207 

instructing or interesting in our origin, growth, and 
greatness. How seldom do we meet with men, 
even among the better informed, who are able to 
rehearse their country's deeds, or call the names of 
those who toiled and bled for their country's liberty ! 
This is not the tribute we owe to those who bled 
for our blessings. The youth of this free and in- 
dependent government should prize the American 
history as the great register of civil rights and 
noble deeds. They should embalm it upon their 
memory, and be ready, at all times, to repeat the 
story of their liberties. No lessons are more use- 
ful than those we learn from history. They are 
counsels from the experience* of nations. The 
light that history sheds upon time now gone illu- 
mines the time that is y&t to come. History is the 
great telescope of the future. Then, who is so 
well prepared to foresee his country's destiny, or 
labour for his country's good, as that man who has 
been taught by his country's history ? What man 
can value his nation's liberty and prosperity, ex- 
cept he has read their cost ? Yet, how few 
of those who are now our country's hope, and 
soon will be her men and rulers, who know any 
thing of her history ! There is scarcely a primary 
school where it is taught, and but few of the higher 
schools make it an important study ! This should 
not be so. The history of the United States should 
be taught at home, and at school, and in conversa- 
lion by the way-side. Every member of society, 
every citizen of this commonwealth, should be in- 



208 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

timately acquainted with every bright example or 
important event in our history. These should be 
the themes of our highest eloquence, and to them 
we should ever appeal. What is there of more 
interest to the American youth than the first settle- 
ment of this great continent? Where did these 
bold spirits come from, and what was their after 
history ? Who did they find here, and what has 
been the friendship, or enmity, between the native 
and the European ? What was the character of 
the first settlers of this New World, and under what 
government did they live for some time ? Is the 
government the same now, and if not, when was 
the change, and what were the causes ? What 
were the consequences of refusing to obey the gov- 
ernment of others, and declaring ourselves an 
independent people? Who were the great men 
foremost in this noble work ? How many did we 
number when we fought for our liberty ? Who 
suffered and died for freedom ? How long were 
we in achieving our independence ? Who assisted 
us ? How much was the nation in" debt at that 
time ? Who were the great leaders in the struggle 
for liberty ? How have they been honoured ? 
What distinguished men have lived since ? What 
has been our increase and prosperity ? What 
changes are we making on this continent ? How 
are we regarded by other nations, and what are 
our prospects ? 

Who is there, that enjoys the bounties of this land 
m& the blessings of its liberty, that does not want 



district school. 209 

to answer these questions, and many others like 
them ? What youth is willing to step into man* 
hood, ignorant of this wise and deeply interesting 
volume, which our history presents ? The history 
of the United States should be taught in every 
district school ; and it should always be studied 
with a map. Historical information will give 
interest to places, and lend a charm to geography. 
A knowledge of history will tell us how others have 
lived, and enable us to compare ourselves with the 
past, and prepare ourselves for the future. 



SECTION XVII. 

COMPOSITION SHOULD BE PRACTISED IN DISTRICT 
SCHOOLS. 

Composition is but little attended to in our com- 
mon schools. Scholars are seldom required to 
combine and arrange their ideas ; and they rarely 
put their knowledge of any subject into the form of 
a written language. This is one of the great de- 
fects in the present system of teaching. There 
are several reasons for this. To compose well 
is not a necessary qualification in the teacher, 
under the present system of inspection. In ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred, the inspectors never 

S2 



210 DISTRICT SCHOTOXr 

inquire or ascertain whether or not the candidate 
can think naturally and connectedly on any one 
subject, and clothe his thoughts with language 
which is appropriate and grammatical: and the 
consequence is, that but few teachers compose with 
ease or correctness. What they perform with 
difficulty and imperfectly, they will not feel dis- 
posed (and if they did would be unable) to teach 
others. Hence the art of composing has but 
very little importance in the estimation of the 
teacher, and is entirely disregarded by the scholars. 
Parents are not in the habit of composing, and take 
no pains to have the art taught their children. 
They are pleased when it is discovered that their 
child writes a good letter ; but the means of en- 
suring this excellence they wholly ; disregard. 
They seem to forget that the ability of expressing 
one's thoughts with readiness and perspicuity, is 
acquired only by long practice and good instruct 
tion. They do not see that an apprenticeship in 
this is as necessary as in any thing else ; thus, they 
do not consider that which would give their chil- 
dren this desirable qualification. 

The scholars suppose composition a mystery; 
something that does not belong to them, but to those 
who have great learning and a wonderful genius. 
They look upon it as a thing impossible that they 
should learn to write ; and what they regard so far 
beyond their reach, they never make any efforts to 
obtain. I know of nothing for which scholars 
usually have such an abhorrence^ and which they 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 211 

make such efforts to shun, as composition. They 
struggle with the vacant, undisciplined mind till 
they become exhausted, and then give up in de- 
spair. They feel that their labour has been fruit- 
less and wearisome, and are heartily glad to 
escape, wishing never to resume the task again. 

One cause of the difficulty is an improper 
choice of their subject. They generally select one 
which they know nothing of; one that would 
puzzle a skilful writer to handle intelligibly; and 
one that is abstract and indefinite, and altogether 
above their comprehension. By trying to grasp 
subjects of this kind, the mind perceives nothing 
distinctly ; the thoughts become vague and uncer- 
tain, and the little that may be written, after much 
toil, is unconnected and dissatisfactory. Another 
difficulty is, they think that they must write some- 
thing that no one else has written, and that their 
very language must be in a new idiom, or else it 
cannot be considered as their own. Thus, by se- 
lecting subjects with which they are unacquainted, 
and which their minds are not able to investigate^ 
and by supposing that'something perfectly original 
and new must be produced, they put obstacles in 
the way which neither patience nor perseverance 
can overcome ; and, after repeated efforts, they 
consider composition to be something that some 
gifted few only have executed by a sort of magical 
and supernatural power. 

In other arts, it is usual to begin, for the sake of 
practice, with the easiest \ but the reverse takes 



212 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

place in learning the art of composing. The 
scholar has a harder task assigned him, and one 
in which he is less likely to succeed than he will 
meet with in the actual business of life. The 
scholars choose such subjects that they know not 
what to say or how to say it. They select sub- 
jects about which they have scarcely any informa- 
tion, and no interest, — concerning which they know 
little, and care still less. And hence it commonly 
happens, that an exercise, composed with diligent 
care by a young pupil, will be very greatly in- 
ferior to a real letter written by him to his friends 
on subjects that interest him. On real occasions 
of after-life, for which his school exercises were de- 
signed to prepare him, he will find that he writes both 
better and with more facility than on the artificial 
occasion, as it may be called, of composing a de- 
clamation. And he will discover that he has been 
attempting to learn the easier by practising the 
harder. But, what is worse, it will often happen 
that such exercises will have formed a habit of 
stringing together empty commonplaces and vapid 
declamations ; of multiplying words, and spread- 
ing out the matter thin ; of composing in a stiff, 
artificial, and frigid manner; and that this habit 
will more or less cling through life to one who 
has been thus trained, and will infect all his future 
compositions. 

The only preventive of these evils is a most 
scrupulous care in the selection of such subjects for 
exercises as are likely to be interesting to the pupil, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 213 

and on which he has, or may (with pleasure, and 
without much toil) acquire sufficient information. 
Such subjects will of course vary, according to the 
learner's age and intellectual advancement; but 
they had better be rather below than much above 
him. Compositions on such subjects, and in a free, 
natural, and simple style, may be thought puerile 
by those who practise the opposite mode of teach- 
ing ; but you will see a picture of thd writer him- 
self; boyish, indeed, it may be, in looks and sta- 
ture, -in dress and demeanour, but lively, unfet- 
tered, and natural, giving a fair promise for man- 
hood; and, in short, what a boy should be. In 
* education, we should consider what is becoming 
and appropriate in each period of life. 

First, subjects for composition should be drawn 
from the studies the pupil is engaged in ; relating, 
for instance, to the characters or incidents of any 
history he may be reading. Secondly," subjects 
drawn from any conversation he may have listened 
to (with interest) from his seniors ; or, thirdly, re- 
lating to the amusements, familiar occurrences, and 
every-day transactions which are likely to have 
formed the topics of conversation among his fa- 
miliar friends. These subjects may be intermingled 
with as great a variety as possible. And the 
teacher should frequently recall to his own mind 
these two considerations ; first, that since the bene- 
fit proposed does not consist in the intrinsic value 
of the composition, but in the exercise of the pupil's 
mind, it matters not how insignificant the subject 



214 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

may be, if it will but interest him, and thereby 
afford him such exercise. And, secondly, that the 
younger and more backward each scholar is, the 
more unfit will he be for abstract speculations, and 
the less remote must be the subject proposed, from 
those individual objects and occurrences which 
always form the first beginnings of the furniture 
of the youthful mind. 

Instruction and exercise in the art of composi- 
tion ought to have a prominent place in all our 
primary schools. Collecting and arranging their 
ideas would learn the scholars to think. It would 
learn them to think patiently and correctly ; and 
it would confine the action of the mind to one 
subject. Thus, the exercise would correct the 
greatest of all evils in our system of education, 
viz. the want of clear, connected thought. 

It would do more ; it would show the scholar 
how much he knew of the subject which he has 
been studying. Scholars are generally very 
much deceived respecting the real amount of 
their knowledge. They think they know much 
more than they actually do. After they have 
read a book through, or finished a study, a few 
general ideas or prominent outlines may be re- 
membered, and from these the scholar supposes 
he has mastered the whole. But when he is re- 
quired to communicate his knowledge, or to put it 
into a composition, he finds that he has in reality 
but very little to say ; and he says this little in a 
very awkward, unintelligible manner. When Xhm 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 215 

book is laid aside, he finds, that he is unable to go 
alone ; and, as respects intelligence for practical 
purposes, he is no more improved than he was 
before he read the book. But if scholars were in 
the habit of composing, they would think when they 
read ; and, by writing their thoughts, they would 
know how much they have learned by reading. 
Practice in composition would give scholars the 
power of expressing themselves with ease and 
elegance. We seldom find one, even among the 
most learned, who possesses this faculty ; and the 
reason is, they have not been in the habit of ar- 
ranging their knowledge, and clothing it with ex- 
pressive language. Let all, then, who would learn 
to think, and who wish to ascertain how much they 
really know, and to have the power of imparting 
knowledge to others, pay close attention to the ex- 
ercises in composition. To write a composition 
is not so difficult a thing as scholars imagine. He 
who can talk, can write ; and if he can talk cor- 
rectly, he can write correctly. Composition is 
nothing more than conversation put on paper. 
And yet, I have seen lads who would continue a 
narrative, or a debating speech for a half hour or 
more, and still not be able in the same time to put 
three sentences upon paper. If they had been 
taught what composition is, and had practised 
it, writing would be as easy as speaking. There 
is no mystery in composition ; there is nothing 
in it io torture the mind ; it is as easy, and as 
simple as conversation ; and all may learn to 



216 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

write with facility and accuracy. Let there be 
the right kind of practice, and any one will soon 
possess the ability. 

The teacher should require every scholar, who 
can read and write, to produce a composition every 
week. He should see that proper subjects were 
selected, and that the scholars had suitable assist- 
ance. The compositions may be handed to the 
teacher, who should examine and correct them. 
He should so point out the defects, that the scholars 
would perceive and avoid them. After the com- 
positions have been corrected, the teacher may 
allot a certain hour, or half day in a week, for 
reading them publicly to the school. He need not 
mention the writer's name, nor publicly the cor- 
rections he has made. This exercise, if judiciously 
conducted, may be made pleasing to the teacher, 
and of the greatest benefit to the scholars. 



SECTION XVIII. 

CONVENTION OF TEACHERS. 

How shall teachers become better prepared for 
their profession ? How can they be continually 
improving their minds and their systems of instruc- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 217 

tion ? And how shall every teacher receive the 
light which the more experienced are constantly- 
throwing upon the subject of instruction? We 
know of no means so common to all, and so favour- 
able, as county conventions of teachers. Hereto- 
fore there has been but very little communication 
between teachers. The improvements which one 
has made have not been made known to others ; 
the incompetency of teachers, and the bad systems 
of instruction, have been concealed ; and united 
efforts of teachers have not been made to elevate 
and honour their profession. 

Other classes of men have had their conventions. 
Men of science, ministers, and statesmen, to ensure 
enlightened and united operations, appoint their 
conventions to redress wrongs, correct errors, and 
make known the improvements and able sugges- 
tions that may be discovered or proposed by any 
one of the parts. The wisdom and experience of 
these conventions not only enlighten the people 
and sit in judgment upon their errors, but produce 
throughout the whole country 'similarity of feeling, 
and harmony of effort. For the peace of the 
church, the advancement of science, and the pros- 
perity of the country, such conventions are abso- 
lutely necessary. But are not conventions of 
teachers equally necessary for the improvement of 
our schools ? Does not the difficult and respon- 
sible profession of teaching require all the light and 
knowledge that can be obtained on this subject ? 
Does not the incompetency of teachers invite all the 

T 



218 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

aid that can be furnished from those who are better 
qualified by experience, and from other literary 
men ? Certainly, every one will say ; such assist- 
ance is highly important; it would afford that ne- 
cessary aid which teachers now have no means of 
obtaining. Yet. so great is the apathy of the people, 
that we seldom hear of a teachers' convention. And 
when their proceedings are made known we find 
that but few T attended, and that but very little was 
done. The manner in which these conventions 
are announced and conducted, excites but little in- 
terest ; and as yet, but a small number of teachers 
have been profited by them. But how shall 
teachers improve themselves if not by such con- 
ventions ? Works on education have a very lim- 
ited circulation. Not one teacher out of a hundred 
reads any thing on the subject ; nor will they read 
before the living voice excites their attention. 
There are but few seminaries for educating 
teachers, and rarely a lecture delivered on sclrool- 
keeping. Teachers are seldom qualified when they 
enter into the profession, and they have neither the 
assistance of teachers in the vicinity, nor intelli- 
gence from abroad, either from books, or the 
speaking lecturer. This should not be so. There 
are means which teachers may use to prepare 
themselves for their profession, and for improving 
themselves while engaged in its duties. And I 
know of none so advantageous to teachers, and 
that is attended w T ith so little expense and within 
the reach of all, as frequent town and county con- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 219 

ventions. If these are generally announced and 
faithfully attended, they will not only be highly 
interesting to teachers, but of the greatest benefit 
to our schools. 

Town conventions of teachers may be held every 
month, and county conventions should be called 
every three months. _ They should be attended, 
not only by teachers, but by all the friends of edu- 
cation. Each individual should go prepared to 
contribute to their interest and usefulness, and with 
a hearty desire to promote the general cause of 
education. Each county association should have 
a correspondence with similar associations through- 
out the United States. By this communication all 
the improvements or changes which have been 
made may be made known. The light which has 
appeared in any one favoured spot may shine into 
every part of the Union. The books which are 
published, either to be used in school or for the 
improvement of schools, may be made known, to- 
gether with the examination which others have 
given them. The periodical works on education 
may be mentioned and examined. Notice of lite- 
rary conventions may be given, and delegates ap- 
pointed to attend them. Papers from the state or 
parent society may be read, and reports from the 
county or auxiliary associations made out and sent 
to the parent society. 

It should be the object of these conventions 
and communications with other associations to 
discover the origin of the defects in the present 



220 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

systems of instruction — to ascertain the actual 
condition of the schools throughout the United 
States — to inquire into the character and qualifi- 
cation of the teachers of these schools — to find 
out the number of children in the United States 
who are in school, and the number who have not, 
or do not use, the means of education — to ascertain 
the progress the scholars make, and the amount of 
knowledge which they acquire in these schools — 
to discover the interest which parents take in the 
education of their children, and the protection and 
assistance which literary men give to primary edu- 
cation—to convince the people of the necessity of 
general intelligence in a free government, and to 
make known the duties which every one owes to 
the free institutions of his country. Such are some 
of the high and important objects of teachers' con- 
ventions. But these are of a general nature, and 
belong to the welfare of the whole country. 

The mutual improvement of teachers is one of 
the first objects of these conventions. To render 
this mutual instruction, each teacher, before the con- 
vention, should describe his system of instruction? 
and his form of government. Let each one state 
his experience in teaching the several branches of 
an elementary education, and that school discipline 
which he has found, after a fair trial, to be the best. 
From this interchange of views on the best method 
of teaching and governing, many valuable sugges- 
tions will be elicited, and many evils and defects 
disclosed. In this way, teachers will compare 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 221 

themselves with each other, and each one may be 
profited by the wisdom and experience of the whole. 
During the interval of time between the conven- 
tions, the teachers and friends of education should 
collect what information they can from abroad on 
the subject of education, and make it known for the 
benefit of all at the meeting of the convention. 

Individuals should be appointed to deliver lec- 
tures before these conventions ; the object of the 
lectures being either to illustrate or simplify the 
branches which are taught in our common schools, 
or to make known the best methods of imparting 
instruction. Discussions, also, should be held on 
the best method of teaching children their letters ; 
and discussions likewise on the best method of 
teaching reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
and grammar. Discussions on the government of 
children should be held, and on the best method of 
making scholars feel an interest in their studies, 
and also how a school may be made pleasant. In 
carrying forward such discussions, and in deliver- 
ing lectures before the convention, each teacher 
should be willing to perform his part, and desirous 
of making all the transactions before the convention 
highly interesting and profitable to all who attend. 

By such a free interchange of thoughts and senti- 
ments on the business of their profession, teachers 
may render valuable assistance to each other, and 
create that harmony of feeling and good-will 
which is so necessary for their own happiness and 
the honour of their profession. From a want of 
T2 



222 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

this interchange of views and feelings, and the influ- 
ence of such associations, teachers have not been 
proverbial in their friendship for each other, but 
rather the contrary. Frequent meetings would 
make them better understand and appreciate each 
other. 

Teachers likewise, at these conventions, should 
propose means for improving the intellectual con- 
dition of those parts of the country which they 
represent. They may excite an interest in 
learned and benevolent men towards these primary 
schools. They may persuade parents to procure 
useful books and periodical works for their chil- 
dren, and to give them a fair opportunity for the 
improvement of their minds. Teachers may make 
known the uncomfortable condition of school- 
houses, and the general want of co-operation on 
the part of parents. If a statement of these evils 
should be made, the districts would feel it their 
interest and their pleasure to pay more attention 
to the education of their children, and their teacher's 
comforts and compensation. 

We believe that teachers, by frequent conven- 
tions of this nature, have not only the power of 
making, themselves better qualified for their busi- 
ness, but of removing this great indifference which 
now prevails on the subject of education. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 223 



SECTION XIX. 

THE LOCATION AND STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Many of our district school-houses are among 
the very worst specimens of architecture. The 
construction of these edifices has received but little 
attention or aid from the more intelligent part of 
community, and has been left to the care of those 
who have known or thought of no other model but 
the old building, and who have studied their pe- 
cuniary interest more attentively than the educa- 
tion and comforts of their children. I know of 
nothing among us that brings so great a reproach 
upon our affluence and intelligence as the low, 
dark, filthy appearance of many of our district 
school-houses. There is no part of the means 
of education that makes a stronger demand upon 
the learned and benevolent, and none which re- 
quires a more thorough reform, than the location, 
size, structure, and fixtures of the buildings in 
which nineteen citizens out of twenty receive their 
first impressions, their first character, and the prin- 
cipal part of their education. 

Objects which are constantly before the eye, 
although they may be inanimate, have a won- 
derful influence upon the mind. This being 



224 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

acknowledged, the situation of a school-house 
becomes a matter of great importance. But 
I would ask the reader to think for a moment of 
the location of those he may have witnessed. 
They are frequently standing on a bleak, barren, 
stony eminence, where the winds and storms 
have an unbroken, chilling sweep, and the hot rays 
of the summer's sun one constant burning glare, 
where there is neither grass nor leaf, but heated, 
drifting sand, or sharp and flinty rocks. Such is 
the burning, desolate, dreary situation of many. 
Others are placed on some marshy, refuse piece of 
land, where the stagnant collections of water, and 
the noxious vapours poison the atmosphere, and 
make the situation gloomy and sickly ; and others 
again close by the road's side, where the passing 
of travellers, and the rattling of carriages divert 
and distract the mind. 

In addition to these gloomy, uncomfortable, un- 
healthy situations, and constant interruptions from 
travellers, there is frequently found close by the 
school-house a blacksmith's shop with its incessant 
pounding, and the cooper's shop with its constant 
" rub-a-dub," or the public inn, with all its noise 
and bustle; so that if there is not bedlam in the 
school-house, there is all around it. And how unfit 
the business and company of such places for chil- 
dren! How demoralizing the influence on the 
scholars, and how offensive and annoying to the 
teacher ! 

The structure of school-houses is frequently as 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 225 

injurious and unpleasant as the location. They 
are often low, and cramped, and miserably venti- 
lated ; the room sometimes is filled with smoke, and 
always with impure air ; the seats so high that the 
scholars are unable to touch their feet to the floor, 
but must sit bolt upright, without a back-piece, 
perched between the heavens and the earth ; the 
writing-desk, in front, as high as the eyes of many 
of the occupants ; the seats so arranged that the 
movement of one disturbs the whole seat, or in 
such a position that the teacher finds it difficult to 
get near the pupils ; and the windows so scarce, 
or so small, or so filled up with wooden panes or 
hats, that but little light can enter, making the 
whole appearance dismal and painful in the ex- 
treme. O how entirely opposite to every thing 
that should accompany and assist the mental and 
physical development of children ! In this tortur- 
ing condition, and in this dismal receptacle, which 
seems to be regarded as a necessary evil, the chil- 
dren are to remain for weeks, and months, and 
years. Can it be thought strange that they 
should dislike their studies? Can it be thought 
strange that they should rejoice when they are no 
longer compelled to enter this abode ? Who would 
not " hate instruction \" 

I would by no means say that all school-houses 
are of this description ; but I think that every 
reader has seen many that were attended with 
some of the inconveniences, if not all, that I have 
mentioned. I would earnestly request all to notice 



226 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the construction and location of these houses, when 
they are travelling through any part of the United 
States. In the State of New- York, and in the 
New-England states, these buildings are superior 
to those in the other states, but my remarks are 
applicable even to many of the school-houses of 
New-England and New- York. 

But as my desire is not so much to point out defects 
as to suggest remedies, and to make known well- 
tested improvements, I will make some remarks 
upon the proper location, structure, size, fixtures, 
and appendages of school-houses. . 

And first, the location. This should be on a 
piece of firm ground, at some distance from the 
road, and where the air has a free circulation. 
The place should be quiet, and protected from the 
winds and the rays of the sun by a surrounding 
grove. The natural scenery around the house 
should be varied and beautiful; and this is highly 
important, as all natural objects as well as indi- 
viduals have an influence in making us cheerful or 
otherwise, in proportion as they appear pleasing 
and agreeable. " When the parent selects a site for 
his own dwelling, he does not choose the most 
worthless corner of his farm, nor a marshy, gloomy 
spot, but a place that is dry, light, and airy, where 
the natural scenery is rich and beautiful, and where 
he will not be incommoded by others. Should he 
not be equally solicitous for the comfort, health, 
and happiness of his children, by selecting a pleasant 
b ituation where they are to be educated ? 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 227 

A child is educated by other teachers than 
books and schoolmasters. Every object that he 
sees, whether animate or inanimate, teaches him ; 
every flower, and plant, and shrub, and tree, 
" lessons of heavenly wisdom teach ;" and every 
running brook, and singing bird, are teachers ; 
the air, and the earth, and the ocean teach ; and 
where they are the most eloquent, parents should 
place the infant mind. There is a difference in 
nature's teachers, and parents may choose the 
wisest and the most winning for their children's 
tutors. Then, let a lovely, delightful spot be 
selected for the school-house, let every thing 
around it be comfortable and cheerful. Let the 
school be removed from the noise and sight of 
business, and from every thing that would endanger 
the body or divert the mind. 

There are some districts w T hich are not privileged 
with such locations ; and the parents in these must 
choose the best spot they have. But how often 
have I seen a school-house standing in the very 
worst place in the whole district^ because that 
spot happened to be central, according to the sur- 
veyor's chain, when, within fifty or a hundred 
rods, a shady, quiet retreat, a delightful place for a 
school might have been chosen. 

The average number of children who are fit 
subjects for the school, in the districts of New- 
York, is about seventy. To accommodate this 
number, the school house-should be one story and 
a half high, forty feet long, and thirty in breadth, 



228 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

This height will admit of a high ceiling, which is 
of great importance in a room that is filled. The 
walls should be overlayed with boards, as high as 
the heads of the scholars, and the remaining part of 
the wall and the ceiling kept pure and bright with 
whitewash. The floor should be level, having an 
elevation opposite the door for the teacher. The 
stove should stand near the door, to let the current 
of air which rushes in drive that which is near the 
stove and heated to the distant parts of the room. 
There should be two entrance doors, an inner and 
an outer one. The outer one opening into an 
entry or hall, of sufficient size for the scholars to 
place their hats, cloaks, and bonnets. The inner 
door, opposite the outer one, and opening from the 
hall into the school-room. 

There should be three windows in each side of 
the room, and two in the end opposite the door and 
hall. The lower part of the windows should be 
at least five feet from the floor; and the upper 
sash should be lowered when air is admitted, in- 
stead of raising the under one. Windows of this 
height from the floor, and of this construction, 
have many advantages. They prevent the scholars 
from looking out ; and being farther from their 
reach, are less liable to injury. The scholars will 
not be so much exposed to the air when they are 
lowered, and they will permit the impure air which 
rises towards the ceiling to escape. The windows 
should have blinds on the outside, and curtains on 
the inside. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 229 

The desks should be so constructed, that when 
one moves, he need not disturb the others ; and so 
arranged that the teacher may see all the scholars 
in the face, and have easy access to any one of 
them. The benches should vary in height, so that 
they may suit scholars of different sizes. The 
height should always be such that the scholar 
may rest his feet upon the floor. The edge of the 
desk, next to the scholar, should be directly over 
the edge of the seat. The distance between the 
surface of the seat and the surface of the desk 
should vary at least twelve inches among the dif- 
ferent desks of the school, that they may be appro- 
priate for large and small scholars. The upper 
surface of the desk should be nearly horizontal, and 
about three inches higher than the occupant's 
elbow when the arm is distended. In many 
school-houses, the surface of the desk is so oblique, 
that the pupils find it difficult to keep their books 
and slates upon them. Others are so low that the 
scholars almost lie down upon them, and in this 
way remain in a very unhealthy posture. The 
body should be kept erects and the limbs as nearly 
as possible in a natural position. If the desk is 
high, the arm and shoulder must be raised, and the 
wrist bent, and this will soon occasion pain, and 
distort the body. How often are the lungs dis- 
eased, and the digestive organs deranged, by too 
low desks? And, on the other hand, how many 
distorted and deformed bodies, from having the 
writing arm raised up too high? Teachers should 

U 



230 DISTRICT SCHOOL 

be careful that every scholar has a suitable seat 
and desk. 

School-houses are poorly ventilated. The breath- 
ing of each individual in the room destroys nearly 
a gallon of air every minute ; and the effluvia that 
is constantly escaping from the body passes into 
the air of the room. From these two causes, the 
air in the room soon loses its vital principle, and 
becomes loaded with disease. Breathing this pol- 
luted atmosphere produces the pale faces and 
meagre forms we so often see among scholars. It 
is this infected atmosphere that makes the teacher's 
employment so unhealthy. It is the poisonous state 
of the air that occasions the drowsiness and stupor 
among the scholars. It is the impure air that pro- 
duces languor, loss of appetite, and disease in the 
lungs. It is a wonder that scholars preserve either 
health or activity. How many have lost their 
health, and destroyed their constitution, by endea- 
vouring to improve the mind, but neglected the 
body ! Let teachers, then, see that* their school- 
rooms are well ventilated, and that their scholars 
take proper exercise in the open air. 

Attached to every school-house should be a play- 
ground for the scholars. This will keep them from 
the dangers of the highway, and from the cultivated 
fields in the vicinity. This ground should be free 
from every thing that might injure the scholars. 
Every school-house, likewise, should have an out- 
building, for preserving the wood from the weather. 
This building will seldom be filled, and will serve 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 231 

to protect the scholars from the storms, during the 
moments of recreation. 

There should be a good spring of water, or a 
pump, near the school-house. This convenience 
is not sufficiently attended to. The scholars are 
obliged to disturb and injure the property of the 
nearest neighbour, and sometimes to go a great 
distance whenever they wish to drink. A watering 
place should be provided for the school at a proper 
distance, and kept in such a condition that the 
younger scholars may obtain drink without diffi- 
culty or danger. 



SECTION XX. 

RHETORIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 

There is scarcely a school-boy in the United 
States, "three feet high," who has not been told, 
and repeatedly told, of the necessity of " learning 
how" to speak. Scholars are by no means to sup- 
pose, that the Author of their being has given them 
the powers of utterance ; these powers, they are 
told, which will enable them to speak to their fellow- 
men, must be acquired from an instructer. The 
prevalence of these sentiments has brought before 
the public a great number of systems and teachers 



232 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

of elocution. The instructers in this art tell us 
where to find the emphatic words, where to sus- 
pend, raise, or lower the voice, and when and how 
to give the thought the proper action. 

Now, it is probably true, that not one among 
the great number of those who have attended to 
these artificial schemes, can be found, who has at- 
tained a good natural delivery ; but there are many, 
probably almost as many as have fully tried the 
experiment, who have, by these schemes, been 
totally spoiled ;— who have # fallen irrecoverably 
into an affected style of spouting, worse, in all 
respects, than their untutored delivery. 

Many, accordingly, have not unreasonably con- 
ceived a disgust for the subject altogether ; con- 
sidering it hopeless that elocution should be taught 
by any rules ; and acquiescing in the conclusion 
that it is to be regarded as entirely a gift of nature, 
or an accidental acquirement of practice. Others* 
again, having more faith in these teachers and 
schemes of oratory, are disposed to encourage 
every proposal for teaching this desirable art. 
This encouragement, and the generally received 
notion, that every one must learn how to speak in 
some way or other, has introduced these artificial 
rules and instructions of rhetoric, not only into our 
professional seminaries, colleges, and academies, 
but also into our primary and higher schools. Our 
district and public school have their weekly season 
for declamation; and every lad, big enough to say, 
« Though I am young," &c. comes forward, and, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 233 

automaton-like, goes through with his oration, ac- 
companying it with a certain number of changes 
of position, and elevations of the arm. 

The practice of learning to speak has become so 
general and so popular, that the teachers of our 
elementary schools consider it a necessary part of 
a republican education to make their scholars go 
through all the stages of debate, declamation, and 
dialogue, enlivened occasionally with a little comedy 
or tragedy. Now what must be the effect of all this 
artificial training ? What must be its influence on 
the school-boy, when neither the sentiments he 
utters, nor the character he assumes are his own 
or supposed to be so, or anywise connected with 
him ; when neither the place, the occasion, nor the 
audience which are actually present have any thing 
to do with the substance of what is said. 

It is therefore almost inevitable that he will stu- 
diously form to himself an artificial manner, which, 
especially if he succeed in it, will probably cling 
te him through life, even when he is delivering his 
own compositions on real occasions. The very 
best that can be expected is, that he may become 
an accomplished actor. But few are likely to 
attain such perfection (and it is a perfection well 
lost) ; yet if he should have succeeded in accom- 
plishing this, he will have taken a most circuitous 
route to acquire that which will make him able to 
deliver his own sentiments impressively on some 
real occasion. 

There are many weighty objections against 
U2 



234 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

adopting any peculiar marks for denoting different 
pauses, emphasis, &c. All such artificial schemes 
must necessarily be imperfect, circuitous, and inef- 
fectual. They are imperfect, for though the em- 
phatic word may be pointed out, there is no variety 
of marks that will suffice to indicate the different 
tones; yet on this depends not unfrequently the 
whole force, and perhaps the whole sense of the 
expression. Take, for instance, the following 
passage : — (Mark iv. 21) " Is a candle brought to 
be put under a bushel, or under a bed V 9 It may 
be so pronounced as to imply that there is no other 
alternative, and yet the emphasis laid on the right 
words. But were this proposed system of marks 
brought to the highest perfection it would still be 
a circuitous road to the desired end. Suppose the 
emphatic word, the tone, the relative rapidity in 
utterance, could be completely indicated to the 
eye, the learner might ask, " But why this tone and 
this manner?" The only answer that could be 
given is, that these tones and this manner are 
natural, such as suggest themselves when one is 
speaking his own sentiments in earnest. Then, if 
this be the case, why not leave nature to do her 
own work ? Why learn to do that which nature 
will always make us capable of doing? Impress 
the mind fully with the sentiments, &c, to be 
uttered ; withdraw the attention from the sound, 
and fix it on the sense, and nature or habit will 
spontaneously suggest the proper delivery. 
Yet, waiving both the above objections, if a per- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 235 

son could learn thus to read and speak, as it were, 
by note, still the desired object of a perfectly 
natural, as well as correct elocution, would never 
be attained in this way. The reader's attention 
being fixed on his own voice (which in singing, and 
there only, is allowed and expected), the inevitable 
consequence would be, that he would betray more 
or less his artificial delivery ; and would, in the 
same degree, manifest an offensive affectation. 
We say, then, to form a complete artificial system of 
elocution by studying analytically the emphasis, 
tones, pauses, degrees of loudness, &c.,and to frame 
rules founded on these observations ; and then, in 
practice, deliberately and carefully to conform the 
utterance to these rules, must, from the very nature 
of the case, not only be unnecessary, but defective 
and impracticable. Moreover, he who reads in 
conformity to any system, must have his mind fixed 
upon the rules of that system ; and he who appears 
to be attending to his own utterance, which will 
always be the case w r ith every one who is doing 
so, is sure to give offence, and to be censured for 
an affected delivery. 

Many able authors, however, have written ela- 
borately on " good reading," or on elocution gene- 
rally ; and it is not to be denied that some ingenious 
and (in themselves) valuable remarks have been 
thrown out relative to natural and necessary qual- 
ities in good elocution. In the practical exercises 
.of some systems the vocal elements are trained 
and cultivated to a degree of correctness, which 



236 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the pupil otherwise would never have obtained. 
By close attention to the utterance, the elementary- 
sounds of speech are made forcible and agreeable. 
To correct the habit of indistinct articulation (and 
the most of readers and speakers have this habit), 
practising on a series of the elementary sounds of 
speech, and on tables presenting their various com- 
binations, is the only and (where there is no physi- 
cal defect) the effectual remedy. The observa- 
tions which several writers on elocution have 
made on the vocal elements, are just and highly 
useful; but the rules and directions they would 
give for regulating the emphasis, tone, cadence, 
modulation, &c, have not only been useless, but 
in most cases highly pernicious. We think that 
every close observer, and every admirer of an im- 
pressive, natural delivery, will agree to the most 
we have said on artificial systems of elocution. 

Almost every one, even if they have not paid 
any critical attention to the various modulations 
of the human voice, has observed the different tones 
of voice which the same individual makes use of 
in conversation, from those which he uses while 
reading, or speaking in public. So wide is the 
difference of the tones employed on these- two 
occasions, that it seems as if two systems (one for 
conversation, and one for reading and speaking) 
had been exercising the voice of every individual 
we meet with. And this, in fact, is the case. Na- 
ture directs our conversation, but art has taught 
us how to read and speak. Says Sheridan, in his 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 237 

" Art of Reading," " I have often tried an experi- 
ment to show the great difference between these 
two modes of utterance, the natural and the arti- 
ficial ; which was, that when I found a person of 
vivacity delivering his sentiments with energy, and 
of course with all that variety of tones which 
nature furnishes, I have taken occasion to put 
something into his hands to read, as relative to 
the topic of conversation ; and it was surprising 
to see what an immediate change there was in his 
delivery from the moment he began to read. A 
different pitch of voice took place of his natural one, 
and a tedious uniformity of cadence succeeded to 
a spirited variety ; insomuch that a blind man 
could hardly conceive the person who read to be 
the same who had just been speaking." 

Does good reading or speaking require this dif- 
ference ? If so, they require something unnatural, 
for we see that men converse in their natural tones. 
But to read or speak in tones and manners which 
are unnatural, and therefore artificial, will never 
make good reading or speaking ; but it will cause 
just such a delivery as almost every individual by his 
instructions is prepared to make,— stiff, measured, 
affected, powerless, and in the highest manner of- 
fensive. Such is the effect of not preserving the 
natural tones and manner while reading or speak- 
ing, and also of attending to artificial schemes of 
rhetoric. 

The advantage of a natural manner, that is, a 
manner one naturally falls into when he is really 



238 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

speaking in earnest, may be estimated from this 
consideration ; that there are few who do not con- 
verse so as to give effect to what they are saying. 
Every one, when conversing earnestly, delivers 
his sentiments with much more clearness, force, 
and elegance than he would read the same senti- 
ment if it was written down in a book. 

Our advice, then, would be, to follow the natural 
manner. The practical rule that we would re- 
commend is, not only to omit any studied attention 
to the voice, but studiously to withdraw the thoughts 
from it, and to dwell as intently as possible on the 
sense ; trusting to nature to suggest spontaneously 
the proper emphasis and tones. He who really 
understands what he is reading will be likely to 
read as if he understood it, and thus to make others 
understand it ; and he who feels what he reads, 
and is absorbed with that feeling, will be likely to 
communicate the same impression to his hearers. 
But this cannot be the case if the speaker or reader 
is occupied with the thought of what their opinion 
will be of his delivery, and how his voice ought to 
be regulated ; if, in short, he is thinking of himself, 
and of course taking his attention from that which 
ought to occupy it exclusively. 

Some may suppose that the natural manner 
which we have recommeded amounts to the same 
thing as taking no pains at all ; and after trying 
the experiment by reading or speaking carelessly 
instead of naturally, their ill-success will probably 
lead them to censure the proposed method. But 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 239 

it is no easy task to fix the mind on the meaning, 
in the manner, and to the degree now proposed. 
When one is reading any thing that is familiar, his 
thoughts are apt to wander to other subjects, though 
perhaps such as are connected with that which he 
is reading ; if, again, it be something new to him, 
he is apt (not indeed to wander to another subject) 
to get the start, as it were, of his readers, and 
to be thinking, while uttering each sentence, not 
of that, but of the sentence which comes next. 
And in both cases, if he is careful to avoid those 
faults, and is desirous of reading well, it is a matter 
of no small difficulty, and calls for a constant effort 
to prevent the mind from wandering in another 
direction, viz. into thoughts respecting his own 
voice — respecting the effect produced by each 
sound — the approbation he hopes from the hearers, 
&c. And this is the prevailing fault of those who 
are commonly said to take great pains in their 
reading ; pains which will always be taken in vain, 
with a view to the true object to be aimed at, as 
long as the effort is thus applied in a wrong di- 
rection. 

With a view, indeed, to a very different object, — 
the approbation bestowed on the reading, — this arti- 
ficial delivery will often be more successful than 
the natural. Pompous spouting, and many other 
descriptions of unnatural tone and measured ca- 
dence, are frequently admired as excellent reading 
and speaking ; which admiration is itself a proof 
that it is not deserved : for when the delivery is 



240 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

really good, the hearers (except any one who may 
deliberately set himself to observe and criticise) 
never think about it, but are exclusively occupied 
with the sense it conveys, and the feelings it ex- 
cites. He who reads in an artificial manner, makes 
a kind of running comment on all that is uttered, 
which says, " I do not mean, think, or feel all this ; 
I only mean to recite it with propriety and de- 
corum." But he who has the energetic manner of 
true natural speech, means, thinks, and feels all 
he says ; and recites it with propriety and decorum 
indeed, but not so as to make these take the least 
of the attention. 

But the natural, colloquial style of delivery should 
not be confounded with the negligent or the fa- 
miliar. The natural style is one that is suited to 
the sense, the subject, the place, and the occasion ; 
and this adaptation requires much intelligence, and 
a high sense of propriety. Thus, it will be seen, 
that there is considerable labour necessary in at- 
taining the natural style of delivery. If we follow 
nature, there is no opportunity for imitation; a 
true conception of the subject and the occasion is 
the only thing that can direct us. But in all pre- 
paratory schools, where boys learn to speak, the 
whole attention of the orator and the instructer is 
given to the manner. The subject for recitation 
is one which neither interests the speaker nor the 
hearer, and the attention is given exclusively to 
the mode of delivery. Under the influence of 
such exercises, while the manners and habits are 



BXSTRICT SCHOOL, 241 

forming and becoming fixed, the scholar must ac- 
quire an unnatural, inefficient style of reading and 
speaking. 

There is not one public speaker out of five hun- 
dred who does not labour under the unhappy in- 
fluence of this artificial early training. By the 
time scholars have passed through their prepara- 
tory schools they have acquired such an unnatural 
delivery that the professor of rhetoric in the col- 
lege and professional seminary can do nothing 
more for the student than correct some of his bad 
habits. If the student ever makes an impressive 
speaker or reader, he must unlearn all he ever 
learned of elocution while attending to his pre- 
paratory studies. But unfortunately, only a very 
few are able to throw off these bad habits, and the 
feeble, artificial, affected delivery which they ac- 
quired in the elementary schools remains with the 
most of them for life. 

But it will be asked, Would you abolish all kinds 
of public speaking and reading in primary and pre- 
paratory schools ? Would you have no exercises 
in these schools, either in debate, dialogue, or de- 
clamation ? Would you have our teachers give 
no instruction whatever in elocution? Our an- 
swer to these questions is, that we believe there are 
no qualifications or accomplishments more useful or 
ornamental than good reading and speaking; and 
that they deserve attention from the scholar and 
the teacher in proportion to their high value. We 
Jhink it the duty of every elementary teacher to 

X 



242 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

use every means in his power to make every 
American youth who may attend his instructions 
a good reader and a good speaker. But we must 
beg leave to dissent again from the method and 
systems now made use of to accomplish this de- 
sirable end. We say, let there be none of the 
machinery of art about it ; let nature be the teacher 
— let nature, ever ready and ever able, suggest 
the manner, and let not this be shaped and fash- 
ioned by art. If the school-boy has disagreeable 
habits or ludicrous tricks when speaking or reading, 
let them be corrected ; but, commencing with the 
boys before they have formed any decided manner 
whatever, we would respectfully recommend 
teachers to make use of such means as will now be 
described. 

When children repeat the alphabet, and begin to 
spell easy words, the teacher should be careful 
that they preserve the common colloquial tones of 
voice. In making their first recitations, they are 
apt to raise the voice to the highest pitch, or to 
sink it to an inaudible whisper. The conversa- 
tional tone is seldom employed. It is while learn- 
ing to spell that children first learn to read and 
speak unnaturally. As soon as a book is put into 
their hands, they think it necessary (from their bad 
practice with the teacher) either to raise or sink 
the voice. It is at this stage of their studies that 
children begin to acquire the habit of articulating 
indistinctly ; of precipitating syllable after syllable, 
and of putting all the letters of the word into con- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 243 

fusion. Now they begin to drawl or trail the 
letters, to abridge or prolong the syllables ; and to 
pitch the voice on an unnatural key. If teachers 
are not attentive to children when they first begin 
to read, habits will be formed which will be cor- 
rected with great difficulty, or remain with the 
pupil through life. I would request those who 
have not observed the fact, to mark the unnatural 
manner in which almost all young children read. 
Let teachers, then, be careful that their pupils learn 
to spell and read in an easy, natural manner. 

Another cause of bad reading is, teachers permit 
their scholars to read what they do not understand. 
The style or the subject of the reading lessons, 
which children are made to practise on, is usually 
such that no interest is felt in what is said ; and 
the child receives little or no meaning from the 
words he is compelled to pronounce. This makes 
the exercise a mere mechanical employment. The 
scholar obtains no information from the book, and 
hence never supposes it necessary to communicate 
any thing to his hearers. If the pupil only pro- 
nounces the words with ease and rapidity, he gives 
the utmost satisfaction to himself and his teacher ; 
the sentiment he never thinks of. The practice of 
pronouncing words, for months and years together, 
without affixing to them any meaning whatever, 
produces the very worst habit which children can 
possibly acquire. The words and the manner in 
which they deliver them, are all the children ever 
have attended to, and, in all probability, all they 



244 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

ever will attend to. Reading in this manner, dur- 
ing their early years* contributes greatly towards 
forming that monotonous, mechanical delivery 
which is so prevalent both in public and in pri- 
vate. To prevent this exclusive attention to the 
words and manner only, the teacher should never 
suffer his scholars to read what they do not under- 
stand. He should convince his scholars, that the 
object of reading is to perceive the sentiment of the 
author, and to convey it clearly and forcibly to his 
hearers. He should labour to make his scholars 
become absorbed with the views, feelings, and 
sentiments of the writer ; and to withdraw their 
attention wholly from themselves and their audi- 
ence. If teachers do this, they will cure one great 
cause of so much disgraceful* offensive reading and 
speaking. 

Again* school-boys select pieces for declama- 
tions in which they can feel no interest, and which 
have no interest or relation to the audience that is 
addressed. This ruinous practice the child com- 
mences when it first goes to school, and continues 
It till the education is finished, whether at an ele- 
mentary school or at a professional* college. Con- 
tinued exercises like these will make any one in- 
sensible and unnatural in their delivery; the effect, 
wherever the experiment has been made, has not 
been otherwise, nor can it, from the very nature 
of the exercise, be any thing else. Teachers, then, 
should not allow their scholars to speak any thing 
q£ which they do not form a right conceptions aad 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 245 

in which they do not feel a lively interest. The 
subjects for declamation in schools should be those 
in which the speaker and the audience are deeply 
concerned. Such subjects and occasions can 
always be furnished by an ingenious teacher. 

The school is a little world of fears and desires, 
of passions and interests, of ambition and do- 
minion ; and the teacher may take advantage of 
these conflicting emotions, and secure the most 
absorbing interest in the debates and addresses of 
his pupils. For instance, the scholars request a 
holyday, the teacher says that he is willing to 
gratify them, if they can convince him that it is right 
to do so. The scholars, now, are allowed to ex- 
press their feelings, and present the claims of their 
petition. The teacher hears them with attention, 
and replies to their arguments with fairness and 
respect. The scholars become deeply engaged in 
showing the reasonableness of their request. The 
teacher sees that decorum is preserved, and that 
each one has a fair chance in advocating the gene- 
ral cause. After the debate has continued a rea- 
sonable time, the teacher makes the decision ac- 
cording to the merits of the case. This is one 
among the many occurrences which daily offer 
themselves for giving a real occasion and a real 
interest to the debates and addresses of school- 
boys. An ingenious teacher will always secure 
similar opportunities for rhetorical exercises in 
school. 

If all teachers would do this, and see that the 
X2 



DISTRICT S€H0OSW 

scholars preserve a natural, colloquial tone of voice 
when they read and speak, and not allow them to 
read any thing but what they understand, there 
would be much more natural speech among scholars 
and public speakers. And this is the system of 
rhetoric which we would recommend teachers to 
adopt. And though the teacher will not attain per- 
fection at once, yet he may be assured that while he 
steadily adheres to this plan, he is in the right road 
to it ; instead of becoming, as in the other plan* 
more and more artificial the longer he studies. 
And every advance he makes will produce a pro* 
portronate effect ; it will give him. more and more 
of that hold on the attention, the understanding, and 
the feelings of the audience which no measured 
cadence* and studied modulation can ever attain. 
As the perverted taste now is, others may be more 
fortunate in escaping censure and ensuring admira- 
tion; but the natural reader or speaker will far 
more surpass them, in respect of the proper object 
of the orator, which is, to carry his point. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 247 



SECTION XXI. 

RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN COMMON SCHOOLS* 

I am so well pleased with what Mr. J. Abbot 
has said, in his " Teacher," on religious instruction 
in schools, that I have thought it advisable to ex- 
tract from that valuable work what I desire should 
be said on this important subject. 

" In consequence of the unexampled religious 
liberty enjoyed in this country, for which it is 
happily distinguished above all other countries on 
the globe, there necessarily results a vast variety 
of religious sentiments and action. We cannot 
enjoy the blessings without the inconveniences of 
freedom. Where every man is allowed to believe 
as he pleases, some will undoubtedly believe wrong, 
and others will be divided, by embracing views 
©f a subject which are different, though perhaps 
equally consistent with truth. Hence, we have 
among us every shade and every variety of religious 
opinion, and, in many cases, contention and strife 
resulting from hopeless efforts to produce uni- 
formity. 

" A stranger who should come among us would 
suppose, from the tone of our religious journals^ 
and from the aspect of society on the subject of 



248 DISTRICT S6HO0L* 

religion, that the whole community was divided 
into a thousand contending sects, who hold nothing 
in common, and whose sole objects are the annoy- 
ance and destruction of each other. But if we 
leave out of view some hundreds, or, if you please, 
some thousands, of theological controversialists, 
who manage the public discussions, and say and 
do all that really comes before the public on this 
subject, it will be found that there is vastly more 
religious truth admitted by common consent among 
the people of New-England than is generally sup- 
posed. This common ground, I shall endeavour 
briefly to describe : for it is very plain that the 
teacher must, in ordinary cases, confine himself to 
it. By common consent, however, I do not mean 
the consent of everybody; I mean that of the 
great majority of serious thinking men. 

" But let us examine, first, for a moment, what 
right any member of the community has to express 
and to disseminate his opinions ; with a view to the 
inquiry whether the teacher is really bound to con- 
fine himself to what he can do on the subject, with 
the common consent of his employers. 

" The French nation has been, for some time, as 
is well known, strongly agitated with questions of 
politics. It is with difficulty that public tranquillity 
is preserved. Every man takes sides. Now, in 
this state of things, a wealthy gentleman, opposed 
to the revolutionary projects so constantly growing 
up there, and from principle and feeling strongly 
attached to a monarchical government, wishes to 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 24$ 

bring up his children with the same feelings which 
he himself cherishes. He has a right to do so. 
No matter if his opinions are wrong. He ought, 
it will be generally supposed in this country, to be 
a republican. I suppose him to adopt opinions 
which will generally, by my readers, be considered 
wrong, that I may bring more distinctly to view 
the right he has to educate his children as he thinks 
it proper that they should be educated. He may 
be wrong io form such opinions. But the opinions 
once formed, he has a right, with which no human 
power can justly interfere, to educate his children 
in conformity with those opinions. It is alike the 
law of God and nature, that the father should con- 
trol, as he alone is responsible for, the education of 
his child. 

" Now, under these circumstances, he employs 
an American mechanic, who is residing in Paris, to 
come and teach his children the use of the lathe. 
After some time, he comes into their little work- 
shop, and is astonished to find the lathe standing 
still, and the boys gathered round the republican 
turner, who is telling them stories of the tyranny 
of kings, the happiness of republicans, and the glory 
of war. The parent remonstrates. The mechanic 
defends himself. 

"' I am a republican/ he says, 'upon principle* 
and wherever I go, I must exert all the influence 
in my power to promote free principles, and to 
©xpose the usurpation and the tyranny of kings/ 



g50 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

" To this, the Frenchman might very properly 
reply, 

"'In your efforts to promote your principles 
you are limited, or you ought to be limited, to 
modes that are proper and honourable. I employ 
you for a distinct and specific purpose, which has 
nothing to do with questions of government ; and 
you ought not to allow your love of republican 
principles to lead you to take advantage of the 
position in which I place you, and interfere with 
my plans for the political education of my chil- 
dren.' 

" Now for a parallel case. A member of a Con- 
gregational society is employed to teach a school 
in a district occupied exclusively by Quakers, — a 
case not uncommon. He is employed there, not 
as a religious teacher, but for another specific and 
well-defined object. It is for the purpose of teach- 
ing the children of that district reading, writing, 
and calculation, and for such other purposes, analo- 
gous to this, as the law providing for the estab- 
lishment of district schools contemplated. 

11 Now, when he is placed in such a situation, 
with such a trust confided to him, and such duties to 
discharge, it is not right for him to make use of the 
influence which this official station gives him over 
the minds of the children committed to his care, 
for the accomplishment of any other purposes what- 
ever which the parents would disapprove. It 
would not be considered right, by men of the 
world, to attempt to accomplish any other purposes 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 251 

in such a case ; and are the pure and holy prin- 
ciples of piety to be extended by methods more 
exceptionable than those by which political and 
party contests are managed ? 

" There is a very great and obvious distinction 
between the general influence which the teacher 
exerts as a member of the community, and that 
which he can employ in his school-room as teacher. 
He has unquestionably a right to exert upon the 
community, by such means as he shares in common 
with every other citizen, as much influence as he 
can command for the dissemination of his own 
political, or religious, or scientific opinions. But 
the strong ascendency which, in consequence of 
his official station, he has obtained over the minds 
of his pupils, is sacred. He has no right to use it 
for any purpose foreign to the specific objects for 
which he is employed, unless by the consent, ex- 
pressed or implied, of those by whom he is intrusted 
with their charge. The parents who send their 
children to him to be taught to read, to write, and 
to calculate, may have erroneous views of their 
duty as parents in other respects. He may know 
that their views are erroneous. They may be 
taking a course which the teacher knows is wrong. 
But he has not a right on this account to step in 
between the parent and the child, to guide the 
latter according to his opinions, and to violate the 
wishes and thwart the plans of the former. 

" God has instituted the relation between the 
parent and the child, and, according to any view 



352 BISTHICT SCHOOL. 

which a rational man can take of this relation, the 
parent is alone responsible for the guidance he 
gives to that mind so entirely in his own power. 
He is responsible to God ; and where our opinions, 
in regard to the manner in which any of the duties 
arising from the relation are to be performed, differ 
from his, we have no right to interfere without his 
consent, to rectify what we thus imagine to be 
wrong. I know of but one exception which any 
man whatever would be inclined to make to this 
principle ; and that is, where the parent would, if 
left to himself, take such a course as would ulti- 
mately make his children unsafe members of society. 
The community have a right to interfere in such a 
case, as they in fact do, by requiring every man to 
provide for the instruction of his children, and in 
some other ways which need not now be specified. 
Beyond this, however, no interference contrary to 
the parent's consent is justifiable. Where parents 
will do wrong, notwithstanding any persuasions 
which we can address to them, we must not violate 
the principles of an arrangement which God has 
himself made, but submit patiently to the awful 
consequences which will in some cases occur ; re- 
flecting that the liability for these consequences is 
on the head of those who neglect their duty, and 
that the Being who makes them liable will settle 
the account. 

" Whatever, then, the teacher attempts to do be- 
yond the specific and defined duties which are in- 
cluded among the objects for which he is em- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL* 253 

ployed, must be done by permission — by the volun- 
tary consent, whether tacit or openly expressed, 
of those by whom he is employed. This, of course, 
confines him to what is, generally, common ground 
among his particular employers. In a republican 
country, where all his patrons are republican, he 
may, without impropriety, explain and commend 
to his pupils, as occasion may occur, the principles 
of free governments, and the blessings which may 
be expected to flow from them ; but it would not 
be justifiable for him to do this under a monarchy, 
or in a community divided in regard to this sub- 
ject, because this question does not come within' 
the objects for the promotion of which his patrons 
have associated and employed him; and conse- 
quently he has no right, while continuing their 
teacher, to go into it without their consent. In the 
same manner, an Episcopal teacher, in a private 
school, formed and supported by Episcopalians, 
may use and commend forms of prayer, and ex- 
plain the various usages of that church, exhibiting 
their excellence and their adaptation to the pur- 
poses for which they were intended. He may 
properly do this, because, in the case supposed, the 
patrons of the school are united on this subject, 
and their tacit consent may be supposed to be given. 
But place the same teacher over a school of Quaker 
children, whose parents dislike forms and cere- 
monies of every kind in religion, and his duty would 
be changed altogether. So, if a Roman Catholic 
is intrusted with the instruction of a common dis- 

Y 



254 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

trict school, in a community composed of many 
Protestant denominations, it would be plainly his 
duty to avoid all influence, direct or indirect, over 
the minds of his pupils, except in those religious 
sentiments and opinions which are common to him- 
self and all his employers. I repeat the principle. — 
He is employed for a specific purpose, and he has 
no right to wander from that purpose, except as far 
as he can go with the common consent of his em- 
ployers. 

" Now the common ground, on religious subjects, 
is very broad. There are, indeed, many princi- 
ples which are, in my view, essential parts of 
Christianity, which are subjects of active discus- 
sion among us ; but, setting these aside, there are 
other principles equally essential, in regard to 
which the whole community are agreed ; or, if at 
least there is a dissenting minority, it is so small 
that it is hardly to be considered. Let us look at 
some of these principles. 

" 1. Our community is agreed that there is a God. 
There is probably not a school in our country 
where the parents of the scholars would not wish 
to have the teacher, in his conversation with his 
pupils, take this for granted, and allude reverently 
and judiciously to that great Being, with the design 
of leading them to realize his existence and to feel 
his authority. 

" 2. Our community are agreed that we are re- 
sponsible to God for^ all our conduct. Though 
some persons absurdly pretend to believe that the 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 255 

Being who formed this world, if indeed they think 
there is any such Being, has left it and its inhabit- 
ants to themselves, not inspecting their conduct, 
and never intending to call them to an account ; 
these are too few among us to need consideration. 
A difference of opinion on this subject might em- 
barrass the teacher in France, and in other coun- 
tries in Europe, but not here. However negligent 
men may be in obeying God's commands, they do 
almost universally, in our country, admit in theory 
the authority from which they come ; and be- 
lieving this, the parent, even if he is aware that he 
himself does not obey these commands, chooses to 
have his children taught to respect them. The 
teacher will thus be acting with the consent of his 
employers in almost any part of our country, in 
endeavouring to influence his pupils to perform 
moral duties, not merely from worldly motives, 
nor from mere abstract principles of right and 
wrong, but from regard to the authority of God. 

" 3. The community are agreed, too, in the belief 
of the immortality of the soul They believe, almost 
without exception, that there is a future state of 
being, to which this is introductory and prepara- 
tory, and alm'ost every father and mother in out 
country wish to have their children keep this in 
mind, and to be influenced by it in all their 
conducts 

" 4. The community are agreed that we have a 
revelation from Heaven. I believe there are very 
few instances where the parents would not be glad 



256 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

to have the Bible read from time to time, its geo- 
graphical and historical meanings illustrated, and 
its moral lessons brought to bear upon the hearts 
and lives of their children. Of course, if the 
teacher is so unwise as to make such a privilege, 
if it were allowed him, the occasion of exerting an 
influence upon one side or the other of some ques- 
tion which divides the community around him, he 
must expect to excite jealousy and distrust, and to 
be excluded from a privilege which he might other- 
wise have been permitted freely to enjoy. There 
may, alas ! be some cases w T here the use of the 
Scriptures is altogether forbidden in school ; but 
probably in almost every such case, it would be 
found that it was from fear of its perversion to 
sect or party purposes, and not to any unwilling- 
ness to have the Bible used in the way I have 
described. 

" 5. The community are agreed in theory that 
personal attachment to the Supreme Being is the 
duty of every human soul; and every parent, with 
exceptions so few that they are not worth naming, 
washes that his children should cherish that affec- 
tion, and yield their hearts to its influence. He is 
. willing, therefore, that the teacher, of course with- 
out interfering with the regular duties for the per- 
formance of which he holds his office, should, from 
time to time, so speak of this duty, — of God's good- 
ness to men, of his daily protection, his promised 
favours, — as to awaken, if possible, this attachment 
in the hearts of his children. Of course, it is very 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 257 

easy for the teacher, if he is so disposed, to abuse 
this privilege also. He can, under pretence of 
awakening and cherishing the spirit of piety in the 
hearts of his pupils, present the subjects in such 
aspects and relations as to arouse the sectarian or 
denominational feelings of some of his employers. 
But I believe, if this was honestly and fully avoided, 
there are few, if any, parents in our country who 
would not be gratified to have the great principle 
of love to God manifest itself in the instructions of 
the school-room, and showing itself by its genuine 
indications in the hearts and conduct of their 
children. 

" 6. The community are agreed, not only in 
believing that piety consists primarily in love to 
God, but that the life of piety is to be commenced by 
penitence for past sins, and forgiveness, in some way 
or other, through a Saviour. I am aware that one 
class of theological writers, in the heat of contro- 
versy, charge the other, that Jesus Christ was 
nothing more or less than a teacher of religion, and 
there are, unquestionably, individuals who take 
this view. But these individuals are few. There 
are very few in our community who do not, in 
some sense, look upon Jesus Christ as our Saviour, 
— our Redeemer ; who do not feel themselves in 
some way indebted to him, for the offer of pardon. 
There may be, here and there, a theological student, 
or a contributor to the columns of a polemical 
magazine, who ranks Jesus Christ with Moses and 
with Paul. But the great mass of the fathers and 
Y2 



258 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

mothers of every name and denomination, through 
all the ranks of society, look up to the Saviour of 
sinners with something, at least, of the feeling that 
he is the object of extraordinary affection and rev- 
erence. I am aware, however, that I am approach- 
ing the limit, which, in many parts of our country, 
ought to bound the religious influence of the teacher 
in a public school ; and on this subject, as on every 
other, he ought to do nothing, directly or indirectly, 
which would be displeasing to those who have 
entrusted children to his care. 

" So much ground, it seems, the teacher may 
occupy, by common consent, in New-England, and 
it certainly is a great deal. It may be doubted 
whether, after all our disputes, there is a country 
in the world whose inhabitants have so much in 
common in regard to religious belief. There is, 
perhaps, no country in the world where the teacher 
may be allowed to do so much, towards leading 
his pupils to fear God, and to obey his commands, 
with the cordial consent of their parents, as he can 
here. 

" The ground which I have been laying out is 
common all over our country ; in particular places 
there will be even much more that is common ; of 
course the teacher, in such cases, will be at much 
greater liberty. If a Roman Catholic community 
establish a school, and appoint a Roman Catholic 
teacher, he may properly, in his intercourse with 
his scholars, allude, with commendation, to the 
opinions and practices of that church. If a college 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 259 

is established by a Methodist denomination, the 
teacher of that institution may, of course, explain 
and enforce there the views of that society. Each 
teacher is confined only to those views which is 
common to the founders and supporters of the par- 
ticular institutions to which he is attached. 

"I trust the principle which I have been attempt- 
ing to enforce is fully before the reader's mind, 
namely, that moral and religious instruction in a 
school being in a great degree extra-official in its 
nature, must be carried no farther than the teacher 
can go with the common consent, either expressed 
or implied, of those who have founded and who 
support his school. Of course, if those founders 
forbid it altogether, they have a right to do so, and 
the teacher must submit. The only question that 
can justly arise is, whether he will remain in such 
a situation, or seek employment where a door of 
usefulness, here closed against him, will be opened. 
While he remains, he must fully and honestly sub- 
mit to the wishes of those in whose hands Provi- 
dence has placed the ultimate responsibility of 
training up the children of his school. It is only 
for a partial and specific purpose that they are 
placed under his care. 

" The religious reader may inquire why I am so 
anxious to restrain, rather than to urge on, the 
exercise of religious influence in schools. ' There 
is far too little,' some one will say, f instead of too 
much ; and teachers need to be encouraged and led 
on in this duty, not to be restrained from it.' There 



260 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

is, indeed, far too little religious influence exerted 
in common schools. What I have said has been 
intended to prepare a way for an increase of it. 
My view of it is this: 

" If teachers do universally confine themselves 
to limits which I have been attempting to define, 
they may accomplish, within these limits, avast 
amount of good. By attempting, however, to ex- 
ceed them, the confidence of parents is destroyed 
or weakened, and the door closed. In this way, 
injury to a very great extent has been, in many 
parts of our country, done. Parents are led to 
associate with the very idea of religion, indirect, 
and perhaps secret, efforts to influence their chil- 
dren in a way which they themselves would dis- 
approve. They transfer to the cause of piety itself 
the dislike which was first awakened by exception- 
able means to promote it; and other teachers, 
seeing these evil effects, are deterred from attempt- 
ing what they might easily and pleasantly accom- 
plish. Before, therefore, attempting to enforce the 
duty, and explain the methods of exerting religious 
influence in school, I thought proper distinctly to 
state with what restrictions, and within what limits, 
the work is to be done. 

" There are many teachers who profess to cherish 
the spirit, and to entertain the hopes of piety, w T ho 
yet make no effort whatever to extend its influ- 
ence to the hearts of their pupils. Others appeal 
sometimes to religious truth, merely to assist them 
in the government of the school. They perhaps 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 261 

bring it before the minds of disobedient pupils 
in a vain effort to make an impression upon the con- 
science of one who has done wrong, and who can- 
not by other means be brought to submission. 
But the pupil in such cases understands, or, at least, 
he believes that the teacher applies to religious truth 
only to eke out his own authority, and, of course, 
it produces no effect. Another teacher thinks he 
must, to discharge his duty, give a certain amount 
weekly of what he considers religious instruction* 
He accordingly appropriates a regular portion of 
time to a formal lecture or exhortation, which he 
delivers without regard to the mental habits of 
thought and feeling which prevail among his 
charge. He forgets that the heart must be led, 
not driven to piety, and that unless his efforts are 
adapted to the nature of the minds he is acting 
upon, and suited to influence them, he must as cer- 
tainly fail of success as when there is a want of 
adaptedness between the means and the end in any 
other undertaking whatever. 

" The arrangement which seems to me as well 
calculated as any for the religious exercises of a 
school is this :— 

" 1. In the morning, open the school with a very 
short prayer, resembling in its object and length 
the opening prayer in the morning at the Congre- 
gational churches. The posture which, from four 
years' experience, I would recommend at this ex- 
ercise, is sitting with the heads reclined upon the 
desks, The prayer, besides being very short, 



262 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

should be simple in its language, and specific in its 
petitions. A degree of particularity and fami- 
liarity, which might be improper elsewhere, is not 
only allowable here, but necessary to the produc- 
tion of the proper effect. That the reader may 
understand to what extent I mean to be understood 
to recommend this, I will subjoin a form, such as 
in spirit I suppose such a prayer ought to be. 

" ' Our Father in heaven, who has kindly pre- 
served the pupils and the teacher of this school 
during the past night, come and grant us a con- 
tinuance of thy protection and blessing during this 
day. We cannot spend the day prosperously and 
happily without Thee. Come, then, and be in this 
school-room during this day, and help us all to be 
faithful and successful in duty. 

" t Guide the teacher in all that he may do. Give 
him wisdom, and patience, and faithfulness. May 
he treat all his pupils with kindness ; and if any of 
them should do any thing that is wrong, wilt Thou 
help him firmly, but gently, to endeavour to bring 
them back to duty. May he sympathize with the 
difficulties and trials of all, and promote the present 
happiness, as well as the intellectual progress of 
all who are committed to his care. 

** 6 Take care of the pupils too. May they spend 
the day pleasantly and happily together. Wilt 
Thou, who didst originally give us all our powers, 
direct and assist us all this day in the use and im- 
provement of them. Remove difficulties from our 
path, and give us all fidelity and patience in every 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 263 

duty. Let no one of us destroy our peace and 
happiness this day by breaking any of thy com- 
mands, or encouraging our companions in sin, or 
neglecting, in any respect, our duty. We ask all 
in the name of our Great Redeemer. Amen.' 

" Of course, the prayer of each day will be varied, 
unless, in special cases, the teacher prefers to read 
some form like the above. But let every one be 
minute and particular — relating especially to 
schools — to school temptations, and trials, and diffi- 
culties. Let every one be filled with expressions 
relating to schools, so that it will bear upon every 
sentence the impression that it is the petition of a 
teacher and his pupils at the throne of grace. 

" 2. If the pupils can sing, there may be a single 
verse, or sometimes two verses of a well known 
hymn, sung after the prayer at the opening of the 
school. Teachers will find it much easier to in- 
troduce this practice than it would at first be sup- 
posed. In almost every school, there are enough 
who can sing to begin, especially if the first ex- 
periment is made in a recess, or before or after 
school ; and the beginning once made, the difficulty 
is over. If but few tunes are sung, a very large 
proportion of the scholars will soon learn them. 

" '&. Let there be no other regular exercise until 
the close of the afternoon school. When that hour 
has arrived let the teacher devote a very short period 
— five minutes perhaps — to religious instruction, 
given in various ways. At one time he may explain 
and illustrate some important truth: at another, 



284 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

read and comment upon a very short portion of 
Scripture: at another, relate an anecdote, or fact, 
which will tend to interest the scholars in perform- 
ance of duty. The teacher should be very careful, 
on such occasions, not to imitate the formal style of 
exhortation from the pulpit. Let him use no cant 
and hackneyed phrases, and never approach the 
subject of personal piety — i. e. such feelings as peni- 
tence for sin, trust in God, and love for the Saviour, 
unless his own heart is really, at the time, warmed 
by the emotions which he wishes to awaken in 
others. Children very easily detect hypocrisy. 
They know very well, when a parent or teacher 
is talking to them on religious subjects merely as 
a matter of course, for the sake of effect ; and 
such constrained and formal efforts never do any 
good. 

" Let, then, every thing which you do in reference 
to this subject, be done with proper regard to the 
character and condition of the youthful mind, in 
such a way as shall be calculated to interest as well 
as to instruct. A cold and formal exhortation, or 
even an apparently earnest one, delivered in a 
tone of affected solemnity, will produce no good 
effect. Perhaps I ought not to say it will produce 
no good effect : for good does sometimes result, as 
a sort of accidental consequence, from almost any 
thing. I mean it will have no effectual tendency 
to do good. You must vary your method too, in 
order to interest your pupils. Watch their coun- 
tenances when you are addressing them, and see 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 265 

if they look interested. If they do not, be assured 
that there is something wrong, or at least some- 
thing ill-judged or inefficient in your manner of 
explaining the truths which you wish to have pro- 
duce an effect upon their minds. 

" That you may be prepared to bring moral and 
religious truths before their minds in the way I 
have described, your own mind must take a strong 
interest in this class of truths. You must habituate 
yourself to look at the moral and religious aspects 
and relations of all that you see and hear. When 
you are reading, notice such facts and remember 
such narratives as you can turn to good account 
in this way. In the same way, treasure up in 
your mind such occurrences as may come under 
your own personal observation, when travelling, or 
when mixing with society." * * # # 



PART IL 



SECTION I. 



EVILS FROM IGNORANCE. 



When we look into the history of this world? 
two things are seen upon nearly every page,— man's 
ignorance and man's wickedness. History presents 
another truth ; the most ignorant individuals and 
nations have been the most vicious and degraded. 
The present condition of the world reveals slavery 
and misery where the people are ignorant, and 
liberty and happiness where there is mental and 
moral light. When the mind is not improved by 
virtue and knowledge, it will be governed and 
debased by the passions and appetites, or employed 
in planning and executing that which destroys hap- 
piness and prevents improvement. 

How far human suffering may be attributed to 
ignorance, or how many of the evils which have 
and do exist among the inhabitants of this earth 
originated from ignorance, would be difficult to 
ascertain ; but we do see and know enough, to 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 267 

say, that the amount of suffering from ignorance is 
immeasurable, and that the evils are innumerable. 
Ignorance has not only multiplied evils, by mis- 
applying what is good, but has given an imagin- 
ary existence to many of the most fearful nature, 
"which have long distressed and enslaved the human 
race. 

While ignorant of the laws of nature, man has 
connected with some of her most beautiful and 
benevolent operations, false and imaginary terrors. 
Before the sun of knowledge has poured light upon 
the mental darkness of a tribe or nation, an eclipse 
of the sun in the heavens is viewed by the terrified 
and trembling beholders with the utmost dismay 
and consternation. The ignorant have supposed 
the moon, while in an eclipse, or what is the same 
thing, while passing through the shadow of the 
earth, was sickening or dying through the influence 
of enchanters. To appease the enemies of their 
evening luminary, they have practised the most 
torturing and irrational ceremonies, and submitted 
themselves to the most excruciating pain. Many 
tribes and nations are still enslaved by these foolish 
notions and cruel customs. The appearance of 
comets, too, are still regarded as forerunners of 
earthquakes, famines, pestilences, and the most 
dreadful calamities. They know not that comets 
are regular bodies belonging to our system, and 
appear and disappear at stated periods of time. 
After a slight knowledge of the heavenly bodies, 



268 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the appearance of a comet excites as little fear as 
the appearance of the sun. 

Ignorance has admitted into the minds of men 
many absurd notions respecting judicial astrology, 
which have destroyed the peace and happiness of 
many tribes and nations. They have supposed 
that the characters and destinies of men are fixed, 
by the appearance of certain stars, or the meeting 
of certain planets at the time of birth. Under 
this belief, the most foolish and unfounded appre- 
hensions, and the most deceptive hopes have been 
entertained, either to torture or disappoint the 
mind. A small acquaintance with the planetary 
bodies will show that such fears and hopes have 
the greatest absurdity ; for it is easily seen, that 
although these bodies may affect the earth, they can 
never affect the qualities of the mind, or the opera- 
tions of moral causes. Notwithstanding the ab- 
surdity of these doctrines of astrology, the most 
learned nations of antiquity have believed them ; 
and by them have been thrown into the greatest 
disorder, agony, and despair. The arbiters, or 
astrologers, who observed the planets and other 
natural appearances, and foretold the fortunes of 
the ignorant multitude, raised themselves to great 
authority, and, like other impostors, demanded 
exorbitant fees for their lying services. These are 
some of the natural and regular planetary laws and 
phenomena which the ignorance of man has made 
objects of alarm, terror, and apprehension. 

On the earth, ignorance has seen innumerable 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 269 

objects which have bewildered and distracted the 
timid and credulous. The ignesfatui are regarded 
as malicious spirits, sent to lead the traveller astray, 
and, in the end, conduct him to the place of torment. 
A little knowledge would enable any one to see, 
that these meteors are nothing more than harmless 
lights, formed by the burning of a certain gas or 
vapour which naturally rises from the moist soil 
over which they are always seen. 

Ignorance has created distressing fears from the 
ticking noise of an insect, heard during the stillness 
of night — from the scream of a bird — from the 
howl of a dog — from the fall of a chimney — from 
an accidental noise in an unoccupied apartment of 
a suspected dwelling — from an immediate return 
after something that had been forgotten — from hav- 
ing put on a garment with the inside turned out — 
from having set out on a journey, or undertaken 
some employment on Friday — from an unusual 
noise in a boiling tea-kettle — from a ringing in the 
ear (supposed to be the echo of a tolling bell for 
some deceased friend) — from ominous dreams, 
especially such as have the confirmation of a re- 
petition — from meeting with a snake lying in the 
road — from upsetting the salt-dish — from the sud- 
den and accidental striking of a silent clock — from 
breaking a looking-glass — from seeing the new 
moon over the left shoulder — from not having un- 
covered the head while a funeral procession passed 
- — from missing the mouth while taking food — from 
being presented with a knife or any cutting instru- 
Z2 



210 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

ment, and from its raining into the grave of a friend 
before it was closed. All of these whims, and 
thousands of others of a similar nature, have been 
regarded with apprehensions of terror, the fore- 
runners of impending disasters, or of approaching 
death ! Such is the slavery and misery of igno- 
rance ; continually filling the ideal world with 
objects which vassal the mind, and preventing 
those feelings of gratitude and veneration which 
are due to the wise Creator and Governor of the 
universe. 

The ignorant and superstitious (and none are 
superstitious but the ignorant or the improperly 
educated) are constantly seeing spectres which 
make the heart faint and the joints tremble — Hob- 
goblins, with their gigantic forms and unearthly 
voices — Fairies, with their ever-changing bodiless 
forms, now a monster, and now the least of airy 
nothings, with their gigantic workings or their 
silent invisible, spells and magical charms — Satyrs, 
with their ghastly and satanic errands and influ- 
ences — Imps, Wraiths, and Genii, with their powers 
of making all under their control wild and miser- 
able — Witches, who inflict incurable diseases, and 
torment the souls of the departed ; with their powers 
of transforming human beings into horses, cats, and 
mermaids ; and having thrown the bridle over them, 
cause them to traverse the air on the wings of the 
wind, over bridgeless rivers, and through the caverns 
and whirlpools of the ocean — and Wizards, who 
are supposed to turn men into fiends, and call back 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 271 

the spirits of the dead, and put mortals into the 
society of the ghostly, sepulchral world, and who 
magically deceive and destroy mortals by an in- 
scrutable agency with the Devil. All of these 
beings and agencies, ignorance places in the ideal 
world. It fills the air with apparitions and terri- 
fying phantoms, which stalk forth in the silence of 
night to alarm the weak and timid. From the 
lonely churchyard, and the dark deep woods, the 
ignorant hear supernatural voices, and see mon- 
strous shapes. 

Such is the tyranny and misery of the ignorant! 
Who can know the bondage and suffering which 
the illiterate feel ! and who is there that does not 
desire knowledge which at once frees him from all 
these deadly fears and galling fetters ? — for igno- 
rance has given existence to every ideal being we 
have mentioned. 

Besides these ideal beings and agencies, which 
are for ever present with the ignorant to terrify 
and distress, there are also a great many foolish 
and erroneous opinions which pass current for 
genuine truths among the uninformed part of man- 
kind. These apothegms, or trite sayings, have 
a wonderful practical influence ; they are at once 
the philosophy and the guide of the vulgar or the 
uneducated. The world is full of these proverbs 
or maxims, and it is to be lamented that so many 
of them are false, that the ignorant are not able to 
discriminate and judge for themselves* but are 



272 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

so frequently rendered foolish, and led astray by 
them. 

These are some of the whimsical and false say- 
ings which all must have frequently heard. That 
a man has one rib less than a woman ; that the 
city of Jerusalem is in the centre of the world ; 
that the tenth wave of the sea is more dangerous 
than any other ; that all animals on the land have 
others like them in the sea ; that the ocean and 
some lakes have no bottom ; that white powder 
kills without making a noise ; that all of the stars 
are lighted by the sun ; that a burning candle, 
made of human fat, will prevent a sleeping man 
from waking ; that young toads rain down ; that 
the weather of the last Friday of the month fore- 
tells the weather of the following month ; that a 
warm winter will be followed by a cold summer; 
that the winter is cold because the sun is farther 
from the earth ; that ignorance is bliss ; that little 
learning is a dangerous thing ; that genius can do 
nothing without leisure and teachers ; that men of 
business have no time to study ; that what is every- 
body's business is nobody's ; that a man may know 
too much for his business ; that ignorance is an 
excuse for crime; that the rich only are happy ; 
that all things are useless which are not practical ; 
that it makes no difference what a man believes, if 
he is only sincere ; that the lazy man gets the most 
game ; that the foolish labour, but the idle reap ; 
that there is but one penny, and the idle get it ; that 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 273 

the world owes all a living ; and that a man may 
be too religious. 

To all of these, and many more, ignorance and 
credulity have given assent ! How little of the 
true nature of things do the ignorant know, and 
how easily they may be imposed upon. Have not 
the errors which are living in society been the 
cause of more evil than depravity itself? The 
great majority of the human race have been blinded 
by these notions and false maxims, and they still 
prevail in the United States to a great extent. 
When such absurdities and falsehoods are believed, 
the mind is made incapable of reasoning correctly 
on any subject, and in a short time becomes de- 
graded to the lowest degree. How painful to see 
so many rational and immortal minds unfitted for 
moral and intellectual growth and enjoyment ! 
How painful to see so many who will never feel 
the dignity of their nature>or fulfil the end of their 
being ! 

Ignorance and error have always led to the 
commission of deeds of cruelty and rank injustice. 
In heathen countries, how many millions of lives 
have been poured out, and how much pain and 
agony from bodily torture, through ignorance of 
the true nature and worship of God ! Through 
ignorance, how cruel has been the oppression in 
every land and nation of unjust laws and tyrannical 
institutions ! Through ignorance and error, how 
merciless and bloody have been the thousands of 
persecutions which have filled the earth with vio- 
lence, and covered it with blood ! On whatever 



274 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

portion of the world or period of time we place the 
eye, we shall see that ignorance, vice, and misery 
have been and are inseparable. 

But there are other evils arising from ignorance, 
equally distressing to the mind and destructive to 
the body, as any we have described or enumerated. 
They are those which the ignorant bring upon 
themselves by not perceiving and conforming to 
the natural relations which exist between them- 
selves and the objects around them. Relations 
which must at all times be our law and our rule of 
action, if we are kept in the path of true happi- 
ness ; but these relations are not known and obeyed 
by the illiterate, for they are ignorant of them- 
selves and the qualities of natural objects. They 
have never looked upon themselves as animal, in- 
tellectual, and moral beings, and learned that hap- 
piness cannot be found and possessed, except the 
intellectual and moral faculties have the supremacy 
or the control over the animal nature. Not having 
their moral and intellectual nature developed, or 
put in exercise by mental and moral instruction, 
they are ignorant of any other happiness but that 
derived from the gratification of their lowest na- 
tures — their animal appetites and passions. In 
this they are disappointed ; for when the animal 
nature is properly gratified, its pleasures are not 
sufficient to satisfy a being who has an intellectual 
and moral nature. This kind of gratification may 
satisfy brutes, for they do not possess consciousness 
or reflection. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 275 

The pleasures of sense continue but a short 
time, for they soon lose their relish, — soon be- 
come blunted or disordered, and lose all power 
of pleasing. And the man who has lost the plea- 
sures of their proper gratification, tries their im- 
proper and excessive exercise ; and by this means 
destroys his body, and cuts himself off for ever 
from intellectual and moral enjoyment. The sen- 
sual nature is in an unhealthy state, and the mind 
in subjection to it. Here, evidently, is the chief 
cause of human evils and affliction; a deceased, 
sensual nature, and its dominion over the moral 
and intellectual nature. A man in this condition 
(and there are multitudes without number in it) is 
full of imaginary anxieties, teased by ungovernable 
appetites and passions which can never be grati- 
fied, and finding tastelessness in all his shifts and 
efforts after that which has long since unfitted 
himself for enjoying. 

One great office of the mind is to keep the body 
from excesses and injury, but it never performs 
this office unless it is illuminated by truth and 
knowledge. While the mind remains ignorant, 
and the affections of the heart unlawfully placed, 
there is no government over the appetites and 
passions, and their unrestrained gratification soon 
brings misery and destruction. There is a voice 
coming from every individual in the long cata- 
logue of the human family, telling us that men 
need knowledge to overpower their passions, to 
master their prejudices, and to render them happy. 



276 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



SECTION II. 

ADVANTAGES OF KNOWLEDGE. 

The value of knowledge, and the advantage it 
gives its possessor, may be seen in a variety of 
ways. The evils of ignorance were shown by 
directing the attention to the fears and sufferings 
of those individuals and nations upon whom the 
light of knowledge has never shone. In the same 
way we might show the advantages of knowledge 
by referring to the means of happiness, and the 
enjoyments of those nations where the individuals 
are enlightened ; where the sun of knowledge has 
shone upon the whole people. By comparing an 
ignorant people with one that is enlightened, we 
shall see that knowledge prevents those crimes 
and cruelties which render a nation dishonoured 
and debased ; while on the other hand, it has con- 
ferred the means of improvement and enjoyment 
which has made the nation prosperous, honoured, 
and happy. If all could make such a comparison 
between a literate and illiterate people, as to ob- 
tain the aggregate of the pains and pleasures which 
each suffers and enjoys, we would want no other 
proof of the advantages of knowledge, than the one 
this comparison would present. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL, 277 

But there are few, if any, who do this. The 
greatest number of any people are but imper- 
fectly acquainted with their own condition ; they 
know not the distinguishing privileges which they 
may possess ; nor the wretchedness of their con- 
dition when compared with the more favoured. 
And when men are conscious of possessing com- 
forts which they see are denied to others, they 
seldom think of that which makes the difference. 
They are contented with their enjoyments, and 
appear insensible to that which produced them. 
The ignorant and the wretched know not the con- 
veniences which the enlightened possess, nor the 
enjoyment of the exercise of their moral and intel* 
lectual nature, and are therefore contented with 
their wretched existence. Thus, since the exalted 
are indifferent to that which gave them their dis- 
tinction, and the debased to that which might im- 
prove their condition, it will be well to consider 
some of the advantages of knowledge which have 
blessed the one, and which may assist the other. 

Knowledge, by showing the true principles and 
nature of things, will prevent those evils which ori- 
ginate in ignorance. The phenomena of nature? 
which were once beheld with alarm, will be con- 
verted by the enlightened into sources of enjoy- 
ment, and be contemplated with emotions of 
delight. They will watch the appearance of these 
phenomena with joy and eagerness, that they may 
form more enlarged and correct ideas of their 
Great Creator. The enlightened will be less de- 

Aa 



278 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

ceived by the false maxims and philosophy in the 
world. They will throw off the oppression of 
their fellow-men, and claim their freedom and 
their rights. That which their Creator intended 
for a good and a blessing, they may no longer 
abuse by ignorant perversions. They will see the 
relations which they have to their fellow-men, to 
society, and to the constitution of the world ; and 
having seen these natural laws which the Creator 
has given for their rule of life, they will be more 
disposed to obey them, and thus receive the reward 
of obedience. The enlightened may greatly in- 
crease their own happiness and the happiness of 
mankind, by contributing to the advancement of the 
useful arts and sciences. 

All science is founded upon facts ; these facts 
are obtained by observing Nature ; and who is 
there that has a better opportunity for making 
such observations than the intelligent farmer. 
Nature is his companion ; her wonderful produc- 
tions and changes are constantly before him. 
Nature and he are coworkers, toiling hand in 
hand to supply the world's returning wants. He 
sees Nature in her most secret workings, acts 
with her in her silent operations, and wherever he 
may be, he may learn a lesson from her instruc- 
tions which will enable him to inform the wise, and 
make him a teacher from the great school of the 
Creator. He may be daily collecting facts which 
will establish or destroy some doubtful principle, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 279 

or be the means of creating a new science to 
benefit the world as long as time shall last. 

The intelligent practical man is able to make a 
fair trial of the projected improvements of the 
theorist, and thus secure a good or prevent an im- 
position. The labouring man has taught the world 
many of its most useful lessons ; and a great part 
of that knowledge which is now multiplying the 
necessaries, and increasing the pleasures of life, 
has been furnished by the observing farmer or the 
skilful mechanic. If all men were 'intelligent 
enough to think when they observe, and active 
enough to observe when they think, how much that 
is useful, but unknown, would soon be discovered ! 

Knowledge will make mechanics more skilful in 
the arts ; for every art is founded on scientific prin- 
ciples, and he who has a knowledge of the princi- 
ples of a science, must be more skilful in the practice 
of the arts* and will be prepared to carry them to 
the highest point of improvement. It should be 
the desire of every one to furnish the head with 
such knowledge that it will be able to assist the 
hands. A mechanic, by exercising his ingenuity 
and the powers of a cultivated mind, might save 
himself much of that labour which he will other- 
wise be obliged to go through. Every mechanic 
may lessen and lighten his daily task, if he will but 
inform his mind in the nature and principles of his 
art, as well as practise his limbs in the mechanical 
exercise of the trade. Knowledge would not only 
render mechanics more skilful, but would enable 



280 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

them to produce articles of greater perfection* 
That which is done by a mere habit of muscular 
movement, cannot have that perfection and finish 
which the mind in co-operation could have given 
it. There is no part of mechanism whatever, that 
can be well understood, or profitably employed, 
without more or less knowledge of the principles 
of its action. We every day see intelligent me- 
chanics who make better articles and obtain a higher 
price for them than the more ignorant of the same 
trade are able to do. When intelligence comes in 
to aid mechanical skill, it will always obtain the 
advantage. An ignorant artist is not able to judge 
of the good or bad qualities of the materials which 
he must use in the manufacture of his articles. He 
is liable to be deceived in these, and thus loses all 
his labour. Good and bad materials are always 
in market, and he who has knowledge sufficient to 
discriminate, and form a right estimation of the 
comparative values of each, will secure many good- 
bargains, and escape many impositions. 

We see, also, the decided advantage which the 
intelligent agriculturist has over his less informed 
neighbours. The ignorant do as their fathers have 
done, and know not that there are improvements 
in the implements of husbandry. They know not 
that the cultivation of the soil can be far better 
understood by a little inquiry into its nature, and 
by a knowledge of that which is adapted to in- 
vigorate it. A profitable culture of the soil re- 
quires no inconsiderable knowledge of the best 
manner of preparing it for the several grains or 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 281 

To know what soil is best adapted to a 
particular grain — to choose the best time for sowing 
and reaping — to judge of the qualities of grains — 
and to perceive when the soil should rest, and 
when it should be active, require long study and 
a well cultivated mind. 

A good education is necessary, that you may be 
profited by public instructions. In the earlier 
part of life — during that time which is spent in 
school — you should obtain the means of acquiring 
knowledge. After you have gone from the school- 
room and the instructer, you should be prepared 
to receive that more general and higher instruction 
which the public affords ; such as is offered by pub- 
lic lectures on the sciences intended to show the con- 
nexion between science and the practical purposes 
of life ; the public instructions on the Sabbath ; and 
the information that may be had by attending the 
several courts of justice, which may sit from time 
to time where you dwell or in the neighbouring 
vicinity. It will also require a disciplined, improved 
mind, to profit by the intelligent conversation of 
those who have had higher advantages of education. 
Every individual may find much improvement in 
either or all of these kinds of public instruction, if he 
has a mind so far improved as to desire and love 
knowledge. 

It is too frequently seen that young men prefer 

places of noisy merriment, or vicious resort, to 

places of moral and mental improvement. One 

great cause of this unhappy preference is their de- 

Aa 2 



282 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

fective early education. They have not intelli- 
gence sufficient to enable them to take an interest 
in literary subjects, or public questions, and they 
feel disinclined to attend the discussions. There- 
fore they are excluded from the society of the 
virtuous and better informed, and are ready to be 
enticed into scenes of dishonour or injustice, and 
finally to become outcasts of society. Young men 
should have obtained that education which will 
exempt them from these alluring temptations, and 
that will give them a desire to seize every opportu- 
nity for improving their minds with useful know- 
ledge. The preacher from the pulpit addresses 
hundreds of his congregation, who, through igno- 
rance, " have ears and hear not f and he puts the 
book of life into their hands, but they are ignorant, 
and " have eyes and see not." Their education 
has been neglected, or they have voluntarily de- 
prived themselves of it, and their feeble minds and 
limited attainments prevent them from receiving 
those instructions which would have strengthened 
their virtues, and have shown them the folly of their 
evil ways. 

An intelligent public is a constant teacher, and 
the instructions are of the most practical nature ; 
and all have the opportunity, more or less, of re- 
ceiving its lessons. Yet, but very few have that 
active state of mind, and those elementary and 
necessary attainments, which would patronise and 
encourage such instruction, and make them interest- 
ing and profitable. We know that there is a want 
of confidence in public lecturers ; too many of these 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 283 

teachers have promised what they were unable to 
perform ; yet, it will not be denied but that there 
are many who, if they were listened to by intelli- 
gent minds, would communicate much which would 
be both pleasing and useful. The reason that the 
public is so frequently deceived with mere pre- 
tenders, is its inability to appreciate, and unwilling- 
ness to reward those who are better. 

That the public may desire and invite sound, 
valuable knowledge, the people must receive that 
kind and amount of preparatory instruction which 
will make them eager for higher attainments, and 
capable of making use of their knowledge, either as 
means of intellectual growth, or of amusement, or 
of assistance in the practical purposes of life. The 
ignorant know not their daily loss from being dis- 
qualified to encourage and understand these public 
instructions. In the present age, knowledge is 
separated from the technicalities and precluding 
forms which formerly placed it beyond the com- 
mon walks of life, and is simplified and diffused 
through the whole community. If a man will ob- 
tain a good elementary education, he can, under 
the present improvements, have access to all the 
higher branches of literature and science. If he 
will but lay a good foundation in those primary 
schools which are open to all, he may raise a noble, 
beautiful superstructure, and this with but very- 
little assistance from others. Knowledge is brought 
to the door of every individual, and the only re- 
quirements that are made for his receiving it, 



284 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

almost gratis, are such culture and discipline of 
mind as will fit him for the instruction. 

We believe, then, that every youth will see that 
a good education, or a certain degree of elementary 
knowledge, is necessary to prepare him for being 
benefited by the valuable instructions of the public. 
And by looking at the honours and rewards of those 
who have improved these public privileges, they 
will see the advantages of knowledge. 

Knowledge, again, would qualify men for judg- 
ing correctly of human character and human enjoy- 
ment. There are many false characters, and false 
appearances of happiness, which will deceive the 
illiterate, but will be detected by the intelligent. 
The ignorant are very frequently deceived and 
made wretched, by putting their trust in those who 
have the deceptive power of appearing what they 
are not. They are necessarily more dependent 
upon others, but unfortunately less capable of dis- 
criminating between honesty and villany — a pro- 
tecting friend and a betraying enemy./ When men 
are brought together, the intelligent will govern, 
they will have a controlling influence in society ; 
but as all of the intelligent are not virtuous and 
honest, it frequently requires a considerable degree 
of knowledge on the part of others to expose their 
sophistry and their abuse of power. 

The uneducated, or, what is almost the same 
thing, the poorly educated, are very liable not only 
to form wrong estimates of individual worth, but 
to consider certain possessions and distinctions 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 285 

among men to be the true means of happiness. 
For these, in their ignorance, they put forth every 
effort, and make every sacrifice ; depriving them- 
selves of the comforts of the situation they have, 
that they may reach that which will be unsatisfying 
when possessed. A little knowledge would have 
convinced them that happiness arises from no con- 
dition, but is always found with the virtuous, in- 
dustrious, and contented. A little reflection or 
philosophy would tell them that the rich and the 
gay are not necessarily happy, and that he only 
can be happy who has a well cultivated mind, and 
a well ordered life. 

The advantages of knowledge are seen, likewise, 
when we are capable of making a distinction 
between books and periodicals which are valuable, 
and those that are pernicious. Ever since the 
invention of signs of thought, men in all countries 
have written for their contemporaries, and for 
posterity. Many of these writings or books are 
good, and many of them are bad. Some contain 
noble, purifying sentiment ; but others that which 
is false and corrupting. The latter are addressed 
to the depraved taste of readers, and have ready 
and extensive circulation. These deceive, unless 
there is intelligence to detect their speciousness. 
They will certainly be read, unless the mind has 
been educated in such a manner that it can see 
their seductive, polluting tendency. To make a 
right discrimination among the multitude of books 
which are brought into the market, requires a sound 



286 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

education and considerable knowledge. The ig- 
norant are often deceived, and seriously injured, by 
not perceiving the tendency of works which they 
may purchase or be requested to read; and the 
advantages of knowledge are great when we are 
selecting our own reading, or books for our friends. 
An uncultivated mind, too, will always prefer some- 
thing that is frivolous and unworthy of its atten- 
tion ; but the mind that has rightly commenced its 
search after truth and knowledge, will reject that 
which is low and trifling, and secure that which is 
worthy of its high powers and immortal existence. 

The privilege which an educated reading man 
has of knowing what is transacting in the world, is 
of great importance to himself and to others. The 
illiterate know but little beyond the boundaries of 
their daily labours ; their minds are cramped within 
the narrow circle which they are obliged to keep, 
and they are wholly excluded from a participation 
in those great subjects which are interesting a part 
of their fellow-beings. The papers, which contain 
a day's or a week's history of the living, acting 
world, have no interest to them ; but to a man, 
whose mind has been enlarged by knowledge, and 
made acquainted with the condition of his country, 
and the great changes that are constantly taking 
place in it, the news of the daily or weekly press 
is hailed with interest and with delight. 

There is a criminal apathy or an erroneous 
impression in the ignorant, in relation to public 
affairs, which is disgraceful to themselves and in- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 287 

jurious to their country. A friend to his country 
will make himself one of its intelligent members, 
and correctly inform himself of all its important 
interests and movements. This information will 
make him a desirable and profitable companion, 
and all will see that his intelligence gives him 
many advantages, and a much greater influence 
than he otherwise would have. Let every young 
man, then, who wishes to be acceptable to his 
friends and useful to his country, obtain some in- 
formation of what is going on in the world ; and 
let him so educate his mind, that he will be able to 
use or communicate this information with credit to 
himself and benefit to others. 

Knowledge would cause all, after an honest 
examination, to see the evidence of revealed re- 
ligion, and its harmony with natural revelation. 
An unlimited credulity or a dangerous skepticism 
is the certain companion of ignorance. An intelli- 
gent, honest mind rejects that which is not biblical, 
and believes and obeys that which is. The man 
who has been educated to think for himself, can 
discern an internal evidence in every part of the 
Christian revelation ; an evidence that is clear, 
full, and satisfactory. And he who is intelligent 
may look into the evidence from testimony, and 
see one strong, unbroken chain of testimonial proof, 
running back from the present moment to the very 
time when the prophets and apostles proclaimed 
their inspired message to a guilty world. And he 
who can look into the providence or works of the 



&88 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

Creator, will find the same revelation of the Eternal 
One and his will concerning man that is made 
known in the Scriptures. Indeed, the Bible is the 
mouth of Nature ; if we will listen to its voice, all 
the truths in creation's volume are heard and 
known. The same infinite love for his creatures 
in the one that we see in the other; the same 
moral government in constant exercise over men, 
that is made known in the Scriptures ; the same 
reward of virtue and punishment of vice here 
taking place on the earth (though not in so perfect 
a manner now) that will be distributed in the world 
hereafter. Whoever will look, may see the same 
government commenced on earth that is made 
known in the Bible, and that is to continue through 
eternity. The individual who has intelligence suffi- 
cient to examine the influence, the testimonial proof, 
and the corroborative evidence in the ways and works 
of God, will find that there is no truth on earth so 
well established as the truth of the Bible. And 
who does not desire knowledge, when it can give 
us satisfaction on this great subject ? The ignorant 
cannot examine for themselves, they must believe, 
because others say there is evidence ; but they 
know that man does not always tell the truth, and 
that he may, from some personal interest, wish to 
deceive his fellow-men : this want of confidence 
in man makes what he says doubtful ; and there 
is always with those who cannot examine for 
themselves, an uncertainty and a distressing anxiety 
respecting the truth of the Bible. The advantages 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 289 

of knowledge are unspeakable, if it should do no- 
thing more than settle this momentous question. 
Let every one, then, respect his powers, and know 
for himself 

Knowledge assists us in forming more enlarged 
and correct conceptions of the Deity. He is known 
through his attributes, and unless the mind has 
been enlarged and accustomed to form an ade- 
quate idea of these, his nature will not be per- 
ceived. It is difficult for the mind that has always 
seen body and spirit united, to divest the Deity of 
matter, and view him as a Spirit all .powerful, all 
knowing, and always present. It requires deep 
abstraction and a steady vision. The ignorant 
must necessarily form very erroneous ideas of the 
nature and existence of their Creator. He reveals 
himself by the greatness of his doings and the 
immensity of his works ; and except the mind, in 
some measure can understand these, it will know 
but little of its Maker and its Judge. How neces- 
sary is knowledge, that we may know the nature 
and the government of Him " with whom we have 
to do." 

Knowledge is necessary, likewise, that we may 
know in what true happiness consists. The Creator 
has annexed pleasure to some actions and pain to 
others ; he has made the desire and possession of 
some things to be the means of happiness, and the 
desire and possession of other things the means of 
unhappiness ; and we have the capacity of know- 
ing beforehand what actions and objects will make 
Bb 



290 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

us happy, and likewise what will make us unhappy* 
But this knowledge will not be forced upon us ; 
we have only the ability to know ; the knowledge 
which will ensure a right conduct, and conse- 
quently a happy life, may be had if w r e choose to 
possess it. We are formed for observing objects, 
for comparing them together, for laying down 
principles, and for inferring consequences. And 
man was made to be happy ; and this earth and all 
things in it and upon it were made for his happi- 
ness. All that is necessary is, that man improve 
his faculties, and know what is good and what is 
evil, and then desire the former and refuse the 
latter. 



SECTION IIL 

THE NECESSITY OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE IN A 
FREE GOVERNMENT. 

When the people govern, they should be vir- 
tuous and intelligent. They should be not only 
willing to obey the laws, but competent to make 
them. The very foundation of a republican gov- 
ernment is based on good morals, and a general 
diffusion of knowledge among the whole people. 
Knowledge is not only essential to the prosperity 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 291 

of a free government, but absolutely necessary to 
its existence ; it is at once the vital principle and 
the sustaining power. The experience of the past 
has told us, that wherever there has been mental 
and moral light, there has been liberty ; and where- 
ever the people were ignorant, there was slavery. 
Since this is so, ignorance, which might be a 
misfortune in another country, is a crime in this ; 
especially, since the means of knowledge are within 
the reach of every individual. In this republic, 
the intelligence of each individual is the depository 
&nd defence of his liberty. The free institutions 
of the United States are not secured by armies, 
revenues, or constitutions ; but by universal edu- 
cation. The education of the people stands in the 
place of armies, bulwarks, and a throne. Know- 
ledge and virtue are not only power and happiness? 
but they are " Liberty" 

In the first place, knowledge is necessary to 
perceive the nature and value of literary and civil 
institutions. The half-educated may know enough 
to desire these, but not enough to respect and sus- 
tain them. The illiterate cannot see the nature 
and object of literary institutions, which are to 
liberate the mind, and raise the intellectual and 
moral condition of a nation — to increase the neces- 
saries, and furnish the elegances of life ; and to let 
man feel and know the greatness of his nature. 
This can be known by those only who have felt 
the pow r er, and tasted the pleasures of knowledge ; 
and such institutions can be established and sus~ 



292 DISTRICT SCHOOLo 

tained by those only who can estimate their exalt- 
ing influence. The nature and value of civil institu- 
tions, the educated will much better understand and 
honour. A high degree of knowledge is requisite 
to see the nature and necessity of civil government. 
Man's weakness makes society desirable, and his 
wickedness makes government necessary. This 
government he supports to protect his life, his pro- 
perty, and his natural rights. The great object of 
government is to preserve order and distribute 
justice. The intelligent can estimate the value of 
such a public check and judge ; for they can see 
the consequences of the selfishness and malicious- 
ness of men. 

Men, living in a civil government, have natural 
and civil rights ; and knowledge becomes necessary 
that they may know when justice is administered. 
And, in the first place, men should know what their 
rights are ; how many of them they have sur- 
rendered up to the general government, that they 
may enjoy its protection and the advantages of 
society; and what rights they have retained, and 
of which nothing should deprive them. 

Having learned their rights, they should know 
whether or not they were respected by their rulers. 
When there is fraud and injustice on the part of 
those who govern, the governed should be intelli- 
gent enough to know it, and able to defend them- 
selves. The natural love of power, and the extreme 
selfishness of man, should excite him for prepara- 
tion to judge of those who are in office, and have 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 293 

the opportunity of gratifying these oppressive prin- 
ciples. Respect and obedience are due to those in 
office, for they are the guardians and ministers of 
that government which has been established for 
the promotion of human happiness. But corrupt 
ralers may forfeit their claims by personal wicked- 
ness and public injustice ; and if this should take 
place, the public should be able to perceive it, and 
stop the abuses before their liberties are in danger,. 
On the other hand, the half-educated know not 
when their government is well administered. They 
are discontented and clamorous when they have 
their rights, and all the blessings of a well-ordered 
administration. They know not the value of the 
privileges they enjoy, and are always ready for a 
change in their rulers. They see not the excel- 
lences of their civil institutions, and do not feel 
respect enough for them to preserve them. In a 
government where the people not only make the 
laws, but select those who are to administer them? 
there is the most imperious necessity for high in™ 
telligence and moral worth in every individual 
The people should well understand their govern- 
ment, and be qualified to know that it is ably 
and justly administered ; or whether it is not made 
the instrument of gratifying the ambition of the 
few, and of destroying the rights and of oppressing 
the many. The people should be educated to 
know whether or not they are restrained by any 
law which does not conduce to the greatest private 
and general good. The people may see evils, but 
Bb2 



294 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

they ought to be able to take that general view of 
the whole which would show them advantages 
(if there were such) which more than overbalance 
these evils. 

In this government, justice is very often ad- 
ministered by a jury : and as this jury is taken from 
among the people, all should prepare themselves 
for being called upon to apply the law, and judge 
of the rights of their fellow-men. -In the inferior 
courts of justice, the people are the judicial as well 
as the legislative part of the government. These 
important offices demand intelligence in every 
citizen. When those who are to be chosen for 
jurors are known to be ignorant or corrupt, dis- 
honest individuals will claim the rights of others, 
and hope, through the known imperfection of the 
jury, to obtain those unjust demands which they 
are certain that right and the law would deny 
them. Thus, the ignorance of men may be the 
loss of their rights, when they themselves are to be 
judges. It is desirable, too, that there should be 
general intelligence to ensure uniformity in jury 
decisions ; for nothing excites a spirit of litigation 
more than uncertainty. When men differ, they 
should see the certainty of the decisions of the 
law. Again, the laws were made* to keep men 
honest. If they are disposed not to be so, the law 
may compel them. It hence becomes necessary 
to know when we should ask assistance from the 
laws, or, in other words, when litigation is neces- 
sary and justifiable. To judge correctly in this, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 295 

we must know what our rights are, and how far 
the law may assist us in securing them ; and this 
presupposes general information, obtained only by 
much study and reading ; but which all may get 
if they will avail themselves of all the means of 
knowledge which may be obtained. 

Knowledge is necessary, to see the effect of 
crime, and the justice of punishment. The natural 
and certain effect of crime, if it is not prevented, is 
to subvert human government, and to destroy the 
peace and happiness of society. Men live together, 
because society increases their comforts, but the 
effect of crimes would soon prevent all these ad- 
vantages, and make a solitary life preferable to a 
social one. The full extent of the injury of crimes 
is seldom seen, especially by the illiterate and un- 
thinking class. The particular injury may be seen 
or felt, but the general injury, the effect particular 
crimes have upon the whole community, is not so 
readily seen. The general effect, however, often 
becomes the greatest injury, and men should be 
able to trace the destructive influence of crime 
through all its relations. 

The mischiefs of perjury in all their bearings 
are seen but by few. Men are obliged to put 
trust in each other's testimony ; all judicial redresses 
proceed on the belief that men will tell the truth. 
Consequently, a man that speaks falsely may de- 
prive an honest man of his property, his reputation, 
and his life. A false witness may do this great 
wickedness and not be discovered ; thus it is evi- 



296 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

dent that perjury would cause the greatest injustice 
and cruelty in adjusting the affairs of men, or 
bring such distrust in what men said, that we 
should be unable to know the truth of any thing 
we did not see. When we reflect on all of these 
mischiefs, we shall see something of the extent of 
the injury which is produced by one of the crimes 
that men have to meet with in society. 

Let the crime of taking what does not belong to 
us be considered a moment. The effect of this is, 
to take away all security of property. If this was 
done, men would secure nothing more than the 
present enjoyment. The future would be unpro- 
vided for ; provision for private and public con- 
veniences would not be made ; nor would there 
be any thing laid by for the wants of sickness and 
decrepit age ; for there would be no certainty that 
we should retain it. Thus the effect of stealing 
would be to turn a civilized state into a savage 
life. The whole effect of these two crimes we 
have mentioned, and the effect of all the crimes 
which are committed, should be seen by every 
citizen who values the blessings of society. Men 
are often treated with respect who are known to 
be guilty of injustice ; but if men would see the 
bad influence of the example of such, and all the 
evils of their crimes, they would not be so civil to 
the enemy of their peace and prosperity. 

When the nature of crime is understood, the 
necessity and justice of adequate punishment will 
be acknowledged. The end of punishment should 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 297 

be the reformation of the offender ; and by his ex- 
ample to deter others from doing evil. The secu- 
rity of life, and the enjoyment of every blessing it 
contains, are protected chiefly by the fear of pun- 
ishment. The intelligent know this, and will be 
just to themselves and to others, but the ignorant 
are apt to sink the crime (not seeing its destructive 
nature, and the extent of its effect) in commisera- 
ting the criminal, — to think the punishment too 
severe for the individual offence. 

Knowledge is essential to see the agreement 6e- 
tween civil and revealed law. Every man in so- 
ciety is under laws which command his obedience. 
As a rational creature, he should know whether or 
not these laws are just and right. The object of 
civil law is to prevent what is wrong, and to com- 
mand what is right; and if a man has intelligence 
enough to know what is right and what is wrong, 
from the nature of his being, and the relations which 
he has to society and to government, he will know 
whether the laws are perfect or defective, just or 
unjust. The Creator has given man such a nature, 
and placed him in such relations to the be ingsand 
objects on the earth, that certain actions promote 
his happiness, and certain others his unhappiness. 
Human law, then, should command such actions, 
and no others, as promote human happiness ; that 
is, human laws should be based on divine laws. 

Knowledge is necessary, likewise, to see the 
necessity of obeying the laws. Obedience to the 
laws of our country (if they are just, and wise, and 



298 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

well administered, and all should know whether 
they are or not) is an obligation which every one 
is under. All claim the protection of these laws, 
and all should obey and honour them. They 
were made for the peace and happiness of society 
and the prosperity of the people, and he who vio- 
lates them must be an enemy to the welfare of his 
fellow-men. The fact that men do not always 
obey the laws, produces much anxiety, and dis- 
tress, and unnecessary labour. This want of obe- 
dience occasions a great share of the disgrace and 
suffering which men endure. All should see that, 
in the end, a full obedience to the laws and rulers 
of the land would bring the greatest amount of 
happiness. 

. We should also regulate our wants and claims 
to the wants and claims of others. This the igno- 
rant will not do, for they know not what are their 
lawful wants and just claims. The avaricious man 
disregards the rights of others, and does not regu- 
late his desires of getting to his present, and what 
he has reason to believe will be his future wants. 
By this means he makes himself unhappy, and his 
fellow-beings miserable. We should know that all 
are by nature equal ; that is, that all who are honest 
and industrious have equal claims to all the blessings 
which are offered in their condition and circum- 
stances. And knowing what is right, it should be 
our desire and effort to do it. 

Knowledge is necessary to see the wants of so- 
ciety for professional men, such as ministers^ 



BtSTRICT SCHOOL. 299 

lawyers, and physicians. The ignorant are prone 
to imagine that these men live at their leisure, and 
on the produce of the labouring classes. They 
suppose them drones in society, who consume the 
best of the good things of life without producing 
any thing ; and that mankind would be much 
better off if the professional classes were unknown. 
The illiterate see not that men are ignorant and 
wicked, and that they need some one to make 
them wiser and better ; that the flesh is heir to ills 
which require the most skilful treatment, and that 
the advantages which men try to take of each 
other require laws, and men to explain and apply 
them. They see not that their souls, health, and 
reputation are worth more than silver or gold. It 
is true that some professional men are indolent and 
dishonest; so, likewise, are some from the labour^ 
ing classes. The fact that there are such men, 
makes a greater necessity for general intelligence^ 
that no one maybe imposed upon. If there are 
men who are disposed to make a bad use of their 
superior privileges and education, others should 
know enough to prevent them. The intelligent 
will perceive that the peace and happiness of so- 
ciety require skilful physicians, honest lawyers, 
and faithful divines ; and, seeing this, they will feel 
disposed to give such that reward and respect 
which their merit claims. 

At the present day, how great is the demand for 
knowledge, that men may not be deceived by the 
errors of the press. The papers and periodicals 



300 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

which flood the land in almost every form, are fre- 
quently striving to make the " worse appear the 
better reason," and the rogue the better man. Their 
intention, very often, is to deceive, and cause the 
people to believe a lie. O how much discrimina- 
tion, how much general information, and how much 
strength of mind does it require, to sift out the 
little truth that is infused into so much falsehood ! 
Who can know what to believe unless he possesses 
a cultivated mind to perceive internal evidence, or 
the natural probabilities of the thing represented. 
The parties make their leader, their favourite, a 
perfect man ; and the leader of an opposing party 
one that wants every thing that an honest man 
should have, and possessing all those qualities of 
which an honest man should not have one. The 
constituents cannot be personally acquainted with 
the candidates, and of course must obtain their 
knowledge of them through the press. But 
there is, in almost every case, too fair a repre- 
sentation by friends, and far too foul a one by 
enemies ; and how shall the people be preserved 
from deception ? In no other way but by becom- 
ing intelligent, and by judging for themselves ; by 
knowing something of the history of the candidate ; 
by comparing, from time to time, the statements 
that are made of him, both by his friends and 
enemies ; and by searching into the motives of men 
when they speak and act. An intelligent man will 
seldom be deceived. Bat the ignorant, who are 
obliged to think as others have thought for them, 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 30 1 

will always be liable to error and imposition 
Where there is a free press, the people must be 
intelligent, or it will give power to the few, to take 
away the liberties of the many. In many parts of 
the country, the press is the sole agent in the 
formation and publication of opinion ; and so long 
as there is corruption in it, there is fear that it will 
be a strong engine of evil. This will certainly be 
its influence, unless the people are intelligent enough 
to detect its errors, and virtuous enough to be un- 
touched by its corruption. 

And lastly, men should know who are the con- 
scientious and enlightened friends and supporters 
of our free institutions. It is obvious to all, that 
many are seeking places of power, not for the 
people's good, but for their own. It is likewise 
as true, that many have the appearance of honesty 
and patriotism who possess neither of these neces- 
sary qualities in a public candidate. How then 
shall the people judge who are worthy of their 
support and their country's honours ? How shall 
they be able to discriminate between the man of 
worth and capability, and the man who is a zealous 
pretender, but who will, either by his wickedness 
or weakness, betray his constituents 1 How shall 
the people know who are the guardians of the laws 
and constitution, and the faithful advocates of their * 
rights I How shall the people know who to en- 
trust with their property and their liberties ? To 
all these questions we answer, " by being intelli- 
gent" 

Cc 



302 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 



SECTION IV. 

DUTIES WHICH WE OWE TO EACH OTHER. 

Man loves to commune with his fellow-men j 
and he is led by an instinctive natural desire to 
associate with his species. Society, with him, is 
to be the source of all the love which he feels, of 
all the love which he excites, and therefore, of-, 
almost all the desires and enjoyments which he is 
capable of feeling. The boy hastens to meet his 
playmates, and man to communicate his thoughts 
to man. " Were I in a desert/' says an eloquent 
author, " I would find out where within it to call 
forth my affections. If I could do no better, I 
would fasten them on some sweet myrtle, or seek 
some melancholy cypress to connect myself to ; 
I would court their shade, and greet them kindly 
for their protection. I would cut my name upon 
them, and say they were the loveliest trees through- 
out the desert. If their leaves withered, I would 
teach myself to mourn ; and when they rejoiced, 
I would rejoice along with them." The heart 
cannot live alone ; to love and be beloved is the 
first natural desire of all. To society, man owes 
the strength, the perfection, and the happiness of 
his nature. In society are developed all those 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 303 

noble faculties which place man at the head of 
creation ; which make him at once the head, the 
heart, and the tongue of all. Says Seneca, the 
great Roman moralist : " Make us single and soli- 
tary, and what are we? The prey of other ani- 
mals, and their victim — the prey which would be 
most easy for them to seize, the victim which would 
be most easy for them to destroy. Those other ani- 
mals have, in their own strength, sufficient protec- 
tion. If they be born to live apart, each has its 
separate arms to defend it. Man has no tusks 
or talons to make him terrible. He is weak and 
naked ; but weak and naked as he is, society sur- 
rounds him and protects him. It is this which 
submits to his power all other living things, and 
not the earth merely, which seems in some measure 
his own by birth, but the very ocean, that is to 
him another world of beings of a different nature. 
Society averts from him the attack of diseases — it 
mitigates his suffering when he is assailed by them 
— it gives support and happiness to his old age — 
it makes him strong in the great combat of human 
life, because it leaves him not alone to struggle 
with his fortune." 

But however great and numerous the blessings of 
society may be, the social union does not take its rise 
from views of self-interest ; it forms, from the con- 
stitution of human nature, a necessary condition of 
man. It is not the wants and necessities of his 
animal being which create his social feelings ; for 
he is determined to society by his very nature, by 
instinct, and by innumerable principles which have 



204 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

a reference to his fellow-creatures. Man must 
have the sympathy of man ; he always wishes to 
infuse his thoughts and feelings into the minds and 
hearts of others, and to share the thoughts and 
feelings of those other minds and hearts. There 
is scarcely a moment of our existence in which the 
social affection does not influence our hopes and 
our fears, our resolutions for the future, and our 
remembrance of the past. On the society of his 
fellow-beings, man, as his Creator has made him y 
is ever ready to pour out the affections of his 
heart ; to society he is ever ready to give the 
strength of his arm, and the light of his mind ; and 
to society, he always flees for sympathy in hi& 
sufferings, companionship in his rejoicings, and aid 
in his necessities. Thus, the all-wise Creator has 
made the gratification of this social affection the 
great benefactor and protector of man. 

The God of nature, who has made it delightful 
for man to associate with his fellow-men, and his 
happiness to be active in this association, has like- 
wise directed him how to act amid these innumer- 
able and responsible relations which he sees be- 
tween him and the fellow-beings around him. 
These directions or laws from the Creator have 
made human life (when it is worthy of that name) 
to consist in the exercise of duties. He who lives 
best, discharges these duties best. And as it is 
necessary for all of us to be frequently reminded 
of our duties, I shall now state a few of those 
which men owe to each other in society. 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 305 

And first, some of the duties which come under 
the general* name of Justice. The word justice de- 
noting that disposition which leads us, in cases 
where our own temper, or passions, or interests 
are concerned, to judge and to act without being 
biased by partial considerations. 

We should be just towards the property of 
others. This implies honesty in all our dealings 
with men. It is right that we should have a proper 
regard for our own interest ; but in promoting it, 
we should never interfere with the interests and 
rights of others. Security of property is the great 
incentive to industry, and the original cause of 
wealth. He who would take what belongs to an- 
other, does all that he can do towards destroying 
the rich and populous earth which we behold, and 
in banishing the intellectual sciences, and arts, and 
systems of civil and moral polity, which distinguish 
the civilized man from the savage. The certainty 
that we shall enjoy the fruits of our own labours, 
is the first cause which operates as the civilizer 
of man ; and he, who, like the robber, would appro- 
priate to himself the property of others, is doing 
all that his hand and heart can do in sending man 
back to the condition, the life, and sufferings of the 
savage. If there was not respect to the property 
of others, there would be no wealth to support, and 
no industry to be supported ; no bounty to cheer, 
and no penury to be relieved ; but there would be 
one general penury, and one common struggle for 
that scanty morsel which would alone remain for 
Cc2 



306 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

the wretched. We should not only abstain from 
wresting or injuring the possessions of others, but 
we should not interfere with the lawful means 
which others may use for the acquisition of prop- 
erty. Justice towards the property of others, and 
their lawful means of acquiring it, then, I repeat, 
is what we all owe to each other. 

Justice demands that we should not interfere 
with the freedom of others' actions. This consti- 
tutes personal liberty. In civil communities, this 
right may be restricted when a man uses his free- 
dom to the injury of others. But freedom of act- 
ing should not be restrained by unjust laws or 
oppressive institutions. We should not prevent 
the free actions of others by haughtiness, bribery, 
or lordly command, but should leave every man to 
act according to his own native dignity and free 
choice, so long as his actions do not clash with the 
private and public good. 

Justice makes us inspect the character or reputa- 
tion of others. 

" Good name in man and woman 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls. 

# * * * * * * 

But he that filches from me my good name, 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
Yet makes me poor indeed." 

To take away a man's character or reputation 
is to take away his life : it is the foulest, blackest 
kind of murder. Man possesses no treasure so 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 307 

pure, so dear, so valuable as a spotless reputation ; 
and he who would trifle with this is man's greatest 
foe. Evil-speaking is very natural and very easy 
to the wicked heart ; and the communications in 
this world give a very free and a very rapid cir- 
culation to evil reports. But he w T ho would in- 
dulge this wicked propensity, or circulate an evil 
report, does to his fellow-men the greatest injus- 
tice, and the worst of all possible injuries. There 
is nothing in our fellow-men that we should respect 
with so much sacredness as their good name. We 
should avoid every thing that would be injurious to 
their character. All insinuations which might give 
rise to suspicion or prejudice, and every thing that 
would prevent the praise or credit which is justly 
due to them. And where the individual cannot 
defend himself, we should counteract every thing 
that would be to his injury. 

Justice requires us to exercise fairness inform- 
ing our opinion of others. There is much less 
criminal intention in the world than is commonly 
supposed ; and it is our duty to estimate the con- 
duct and motives of others with calmness and im- 
partiality. We should make full allowance for 
the circumstances and feelings of others. We 
should not be willing to ascribe bad motives to 
men, nor to condemn them before they are proved 
to be dishonest. It is natural to ascribe good mo- 
tives to our bad actions, and bad motives to the 
good actions of others. We should guard against 
this selfish principle, and this want of fairness and 



308 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

liberality to our fellow-men. We should always 
form good opinions of men, until their actions 
compel us to do otherwise. It is unjust to form 
our opinions of men from imperfect acquaintance 
or partial considerations ; yet men are very liable 
to do so. An opinion should not be formed or 
published until there is a full understanding of the 
person and the subject in question ; yet so ready 
are men to relate whatever has been told to them ; 
and so much readier are they to inquire what is 
said than what is true, that there is very apt to be 
a want of fairness in the examination of the truth 
of what is uttered. This disposition should make 
us cautious in receiving or circulating any thing 
which may injure others. 

Justice is to be exercised in judging of the state- 
ments of others. This constitutes candour. We 
are to give a candid, deliberate hearing to the 
opinions, arguments, and statements of others ; 
estimating fairly and honestly their weight and in- 
fluence. This state of mind is opposed to preju- 
dice, bigotry, self-love for our own opinion, attach- 
ment to preconceived opinions, and a narrow dis- 
putatious spirit. In stating any thing men are apt 
to take from, or add to, whatever they may have 
heard ; to give it a different colouring, or a dif- 
ferent appearance from what they know to be the 
true state of the case. Men are apt, likewise, to 
draw conclusions which do not follow from the 
facts and premises which they have judged from. 
To all this unfairness in judging of the statements 



DISTRICV SCHOOL. 309 

of others, candour is directly opposed ; and he who 
wishes to represent others as he would wish to be 
represented, will often examine himself to see if he 
has not something of this deceptive spirit. 

Justice enjoins us to respect the feelings and 
affections of others. We may do great injury to 
the feelings of others without hurting their interest 
or their reputation. There are minds of extreme 
delicacy, which we may deeply wound, either by 
roughness or grossness of manner, or by overbear- 
ing haughtiness and undue severity. Towards 
sensitive persons, like these, we should behave with 
the utmost tenderness. We should never ruffle 
the tranquil mind, nor disturb that equanimity of 
temper so necessary to a clear perception of 
truth and the happiness of the individual. And he 
who robs one of the affections of another* is the 
greatest pilferer that moves above the earth. The 
affections of others are the most precious posses- 
sions which man can have ; and if the guilt of the 
robber is in proportion to the evil he does, who is 
there so guilty, so base, as that man who steals not 
only the affections, but also the capacity of feeling 
affection and confidence again. He who would 
corrupt or lessen that remaining affection and love 
which men still have for each other, and which 
makes the earth still a paradise wherever they 
exist, does all that he can to equal the malignity 
and wickedness of the first great tempter of the 
human race. 

Justice demands that we should be impartial in 



310 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

estimating the talents of others. Man is prone to 
detract from the reputation of others that he may 
advance his own. Perhaps there is no principle 
more deeply rooted in the human mind than the 
love of fame and distinction ; and if this principle 
is properly regulated, there is no one more subser- 
vient to valuable purposes. But it is the most 
difficult of all principles to restrain within the 
bounds of moderation. Our ambition and self- 
partiality prevent us from attending to the merits 
of others, and we are blind or ill-disposed towards 
those talents and excellences which eclipse our 
own. Of this truth, he who will attend to the 
operations of his own mind will be fully satisfied. 
How necessary is it, then, that we should guard 
against that envious spirit which would prevent us 
from appreciating and honouring the genius and 
abilities of others. We should always be ready 
to see beauties and applaud excellences, and to 
give the tribute of honour wherever honour is due. 
Justice demands that we should not injure the 
moral principles oi others. He who would know- 
ingly corrupt the virtue or the moral principles of 
another, either by specious argument, seduction, 
or vicious example, must possess a character of the 
deepest malignity. These offences come under 
no human law ; the morality and good- will of man 
is the only restraint over them. And he who wil- 
fully lessens a single virtue in the heart of another, 
or introduces into it a single vice, or increases the 
power of any guilty passion, is an enemy to the 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 311 

peace of society, the happiness of man, and the 
government of his Creator. To unhinge the 
moral principles of another, in any way whatever, 
is to do the worst deed which man does to his fel- 
low-men. Yet how ready are some men to ridi- 
cule religion, to sneer at morality, and to mock at 
every religious expression and sentiment of the 
heart. To such we would say, if you have no fear 
of human depravity unchecked, no fear of human 
ordinances, or no fear of the laws of God, yet we 
beseech you have some benevolence to your fel- 
low-men. Do not use your wickedness and malice 
by leaguing with the arch-destroyer of man, in 
making the world worse than it now is. Have 
some regard to the sensitive, immortal beings 
around you ; and if you have made up your minds 
to become abandoned in principle and depraved in 
practice, we still entreat you not to seek to contami- 
nate others. How guilty must be that writer, 
whose works have contributed to violate the prin- 
ciples of truth and rectitude ; to pollute the imagi- 
nation or corrupt the heart ! Yet this destroyer 
of moral being often goes through the scene of de- 
struction unmolested, perhaps honoured, as if no 
power could reach the measure of his guilt but the 
hand of the Eternal. There is another extensive 
species of corruption which arises from profligate 
example. When the gray-headed veteran of de- 
baucheries, having led a long life of unceasing 
excess in all that is gross and depraved, collects 
around him his band of youthful disciples, and re* 



312 DISTRICT SCHOOL, 

lates to them the tales of merriment and obscenity, 
and watches the vicious passions which need to be 
strengthened, he presents an example the results 
of which no one can estimate. Surely, if there be 
a being on this earth whom we have permission to 
hate, with full and absolute detestation, it is a 
human demon like this. How circumspect should 
we be, that we may in no way whatever be the 
cause of injuring the moral principles of others ! 

Another social duty which we owe to each other 
is that of Veracity. The happiness which we de- 
rive from intercourse with men, from the advance- 
ment and diffusion of knowledge, from the teach- 
ings of philosophy, and the experience of history, 
depends upon the fidelity and scrupulous accuracy 
with which we adhere to the natural, instinctive 
principle of veracity. Openness, sincerity, and 
truth not only promote our highest interest, but 
have an engaging, beautiful appearance wherever 
they are found. Truth is the native suggestion of 
the heart, and is always uttered, unless there are 
solicitations to falsehood too strong for the natural 
principle. Children always put implicit confidence 
in the statements of others, until experience teaches 
them the lesson of caution ; and after all our les- 
sons of equivocation, duplicity, and falsehood, there 
is more belief than veracity in the world. Although 
the existence and happiness of society depend 
upon the fidelity with which men ascertain and re- 
late the truth, although there is so much that is 
pleasing and attractive in truth, and although it is 



DISTRICT SCHOOL* . 313 

the natural, spontaneous effusion of the heart, still 
there is so much insincerity, pride, ambition, and 
avarice in the heart of man, that he finds strong 
solicitations to depart from that fidelity of purpose, 
that scrupulous accuracy of statement which he 
knows is due to his fellow-citizens. 

The duty of veracity should make men faithful 
and critical in ascertaining facts. There is so 
much credulity in man, that he is apt to believe 
without proper examination. (I except the sub- 
ject of Christianity, for here the want of examina- 
tion is the cause of unbelief.) In the affairs of life, 
we are disposed to draw general conclusions from 
a few particular facts, to judge of a w T hole body of 
men from a knowledge of a few individuals, and to 
pass sentence upon an individual from knowing 
some one of his opinions, or from hearing of a few 
facts in the history of his life. There is too strong 
an inclination to generalize and jump to conclu- 
sions. This makes man impatient and unfaithful 
in his investigations, and superficial in his informa- 
tion. He cannot expect to tell the truth, if he has 
not correctly and fully informed himself. He can- 
not be a man of veracity, however well disposed 
he may be, unless he is critical and faithful in his 
reception of facts. 

We should, likewise, be scrupulous in stating 
facts. They may be stated correctly, and yet give 
a false impression. The truth may be told, and yet 
a part of it withheld. A fact may be stated with- 
out the circumstances under which it occurred. 
Dd 



314 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

There are many ways of deceiving, either by look^ 
or voice, or gesture, or suppression, or high colour- 
ing, and yet, so far as respects the prominent facts 
in the case, there may be no departure from truth. 
Much watchfulness and sincerity will be necessary 
to give us an honest, scrupulous narration. 

The third consideration in the love and practice 
of truth is faithfulness in the fulfilment of promises, 
This is opposed to actual departure from what 
was distinctly promised ; likewise to all those en- 
couragements which one may give another with- 
out the intention of meeting them. A straight- 
forward integrity carefully and conscientiously 
performs every promise, and fulfils every engage- 
ment, although the performance or fulfilment is 
attended with a high sacrifice of feeling and in- 
terest. 

I know of nothing that causes so much incon- 
venience and derangement in the business of life, 
that stops the exercise of so much benevolence, that 
makes truth and reality so powerless, as the de- 
partures which men make from strict veracity. 
Let us, then, in all our intercourse, be careful to 
fulfil this duty to each other, 

The duties which have been considered may be 
termed negative duties, which cause us to abstain 
from the injury of others. Those which are yet to 
be considered may be called positive duties, coming 
under the general term Benevolence. These con- 
sist in being active in doing good to our fellow-men. 
And how touching and eloquent are the pleadings 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 315 

of the wants and ills of man ! Wherever mankind 
are found, there man sees and hears invitations to 
do good, the most tender and the most persuasive. 
There is nothing that calls upon man's activity with 
so much justice, so much earnestness, and with 
such high, heavenly claims, as the destitute, diseased 
condition of man, and the susceptibility of his 
nature for increased happiness. The world is 
ignorant, and wants instruction — in doubt, and asks 
for counsel— it is sick, and wishes and needs health 
— hungry and naked, and asks for food and cloth- 
ing. Wherever man meets man, there benevolence 
is asked and required. 

It is our duty to administer to each other's per- 
sonal necessities. The rich are dependant on the 
poor, and the poor upon the rich. Some have 
more than they want, and others want more than 
they have. There is bounty to relieve, and penury 
to be relieved — there is the exercise of generosity 
for some, and the exercise of gratitude for others. 
There are some who are " nobly maimed," some 
are unfortunate, and others whose woes make men 
forget their vices : all these are brothers of the 
human family, and ask our benevolence for the 
necessaries of man. These petitions should be 
heard, and if there is ability, cheerfully granted. 

Our benevolence should be eager to relieve per- 
sonal suffering. This we may do by erecting hos- 
pitals and asylums, by visiting and administering 
to the sick, and by sending to the disabled the com- 
forts of life. Whenever a fellow-being is in pain 



316 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

or despondency, we should be disposed to relieve 
and to cheer. The supplications of the sick and 
the sorrowful should be heard and answered, as 
well as the invitations of the gay and the happy. 
We should sympathize with the sufferer as well as 
rejoice with the prosperous. It is as much, or 
more, our duty to relieve personal pain, as it is to 
add to personal pleasure. Benevolence can make 
the world much happier by supplying the wants of 
the necessitous, and relieving the sufferings of the 
diseased, than it can by giving comforts to the 
comfortable ; yet the most of our benevolence is 
apt to expend itself in sympathy with those who 
would be happy without it. Prosperity always 
owes a duty to adversity ; the fortunate should 
regard the unfortunate ; and the virtuous should 
pity the vicious. Benevolence should be the great 
m-oral link which unites man to man ; and it should 
be our business to visit the lonely and the neglected, 
to comfort the distressed, and to counsel the weak 
and the wavering. 

It is our duty to attend to the education and in- 
struction of others. " The virtue of mankind, and 
the knowledge which invigorates that virtue and 
renders it more surely useful, are the greatest 
objects which benevolence can have in view." To 
instruct the ignorant in useful knowledge is to do 
the greatest good that man is privileged to confer. 
There is no benevolence so exalted, so useful, so 
heavenly as that which pours meatal and moral 
light into the rational, immortal mind. To give 



DISTRICT SCHOOL* 317 

the ignorant an education is the only way that we 
can give them the power of fulfilling the object of 
their being. This divine benevolence, all who 
have had an education are permitted and required 
to exercise. 

We may instruct by founding and endowing 
literary institutions ; by petitioning for or enacting 
laws which encourage a sound universal education ; 
by instructing those who make teaching their pro- 
fession ; by ascertaining the amount and means of 
education among the whole people ; by improving 
the condition of the schools, and by imparting 
useful information wherever we meet with mind. 
Man was put into society to love and enlighten 
man ; and when he does this duty, he feels a plea- 
sure which is purer and higher than any other. 
To know our duty to ourselves, to our fellow-mer^ 
and to our Creator, is the duty of all, and having 
known, it is our duty to give this knowledge to 
every human being. 

It is our duty to make men moral. And to make 
them moral is not only to make them refrain from 
the grosser vices of men and to do their duty to 
their neighbours, but likewise to persuade them to 
love and obey their Creator. To raise the moral 
condition of man by instructing the ignorant, by 
rescuing the unwary, and by reclaiming the vicious, 
implies the highest species of useful benevolence. 
But we cannot make man happy by giving him 
honours, possessions, or pleasures ; if we make him 
happy we must make him moral. And we cannot 
Dd2 



318 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

make men moral by merely making them polite 
and learned ; but we take the proper means to do 
this when we give them that Word which is truth, 
and which sanctifies men. Therefore, to improve 
the moral condition of men is to make them sober, 
enlightened Christians. Any thing short of this is 
but little else than a change from one vice to 
another. Our benevolence, then, in raising the 
moral condition of man, should be exercised in 
making him understand, believe, and practise the 
truths of the Bible. 

A fixed, settled benevolence disposes us at all 
times to be agreeable to our fellow-men. There 
are many who are not deficient in what we usually 
call deeds of benevolence, yet who are still very apt 
to forget that a most important exercise of true 
benevolence consists in the habitual cultivation and 
practice of courtesy, gentleness, and kindness ; and 
that these dispositions often increase the comforts and 
happiness of others to a greater degree than any 
actual deeds of beneficence. This u benevolence 
in trifles" is something that we as a people do not 
yet very well understand ; yet the greater part of 
the happiness of life consists in those little atten- 
tions, those " minor decencies" which cost us no 
trouble or money, but which we, from selfishness 
or sturdy independence, are very much disposed 
to overlook. To make others happy by conform- 
ing our feelings to theirs, by taking an interest in 
the worthy objects of their pursuit, and by entering 
into their plans and opinions, is a sympathy we all 



DI3TRICT SCHOOL. 319 

desire, and a benevolence which we all owe. 
He that does this exercises no small virtue. To 
make ourselves agreeable by flattery, or by pam- 
pering vicious appetites, is detestable ; it is to make 
ourselves wholly unworthy of esteem or friend- 
ship. But to make ourselves agreeable by im- 
parting innocent amusement or useful knowledge, 
by increasing the general happiness and good will 
of the company, or by sharing the sorrows and 
sufferings of others, is a benevolent tribute which 
we all owe to those we meet with. Whenever we 
meet with our fellow-men, we should always desire, 
and do all in our power to make them happier and 
better. 

And, lastly, in all our intercourse with men we 
should endeavour to make peace. This becomes, 
in a world that is quick to take offence and slow 
to forgive it, a very important duty. To be a 
peace-maker where there are constant provoca- 
tions and systematic injustice, met as constantly 
by unrelenting resentment and revenge, is one of 
the most honourable, charitable, and heavenly ca- 
pacities that men can ever act in, He who allays 
strife, calms the passionate, and soothes exitement 
is, indeed, a welcome and a blessed mediator be- 
tween man and man. As we have already said, 
there is much less criminal intention in the world 
than is generally imagined — the most of the differ- 
ences among men arising from misunderstanding 
and misrepresentation ; and hence it becomes us 
to put the best possible construction upon the 



Z20 DISTRICT SCHOOL* 

actions of others, and not to judge hastily or report 
unfavourably. We should discountenance all in- 
sinuations, and strive to make the parties better 
understood by each other. We should avoid 
every thing that would injure the feelings or the 
friendship of others. We should endeavour to 
destroy prejudice, abate animosity, and to estab- 
lish a friendly, social intercourse among all men. 
He who adds one emotion of love more to the 
world, or takes away from it one of hatred, is a 
benefactor to man. He who makes friendship 
where there was enmity, kindness where there 
was a disposition to injure, and gratitude where 
there was suspicion, may truly be said " to go 
about doing good." " Blessed are the peace- 
makers, for they shall be called the children of 
God." 



SECTION V. 

PATRIOTIC DUTIES TO OUR COUNTRY. 

" In an extensive and populous country, the in- 
stinctive affection of patriotism is apt to grow 
languid among the mass of the people, and there- 
fore it becomes the more necessary to impress on 
their minds those considerations of reason and duty 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 321 

which recommend public spirit as one of the prin- 
cipal branches of morality." — Dugald Stewart. 

There is a foundation laid in nature for distinct 
communities. Mountains, oceans, and coutinents 
create natural divisions ; and the diversity of lan- 
guages, customs, manners, and products unite with 
these natural divisions to separate tribes and nations 
from each other, These causes always separate 
men during the earlier ages of society, but their 
effect becomes less and less as society advances, 
and reason improves. The prejudices which arise 
among different nations, from arbitrary signs and 
ceremonies, may be necessary during the infancy 
of reason, to maintain order and form the people 
into united governments. But when the mind be- 
comes more mature, and can look beyond the sign 
and the ceremony, these barriers of affection and 
free intercourse are seen to be but useless trifles, 
and will gradually disappear. 

The strong tendency of reason and affection to 
unite every people and nation, shows us that the 
principles of disunion (for patriotism implies a 
separation) are not malign and original in the hu- 
man heart. While we love the land of our birth, 
and defend the government that protects us, we 
may still wish the prosperity of every other land, 
and the perfection of every other government. 
Duties to our countrymen, and to the laws of our 
country, do not imply ill-will to others. 

Men may be enthusiastic, and even selfish, in 



322 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

loving their country. To love the land of our fathers, 
and the land of our birth, is natural to all, and the 
duty of all. To love and venerate the great names 
and the great deeds recorded in the history of our 
country, is a patriotic duty which every American 
youth rejoices to perform. In loving our country, 
we love every individual in it, for each is a part of the 
one great whole. The heart feels an affection for 
those who tread the same soil, who breathe the 
same air, and rejoice in the same freedom. We 
feel united by the closest ties to those who lend 
vigour to the same institutions, who with us have 
one common interest and one common enemy. 
Interests and relations like these unite the hands 
and hearts of American youth with ties too strong 
for ambition or rivalry to break asunder. Affec- 
tion is the great accompaniment of duty: and 
when affection is so strong and so universal, there 
must be duties of no slight obligation. 

Our first patriotic duty is the duty of obedience. 
Obedience to the government under which we live 
does not become a duty, merely because that gov- 
ernment exists, or has long existed, but because 
mankind — at least that large part of mankind, 
which we term our country— would suffer, upon 
the w r hole, if we were not to obey. This gives 
authority to any government to claim the obedi- 
ence of every citizen. He who is wise enough to 
consult for the public weal, and good enough to 
wish it, will never hazard a revolution because a 
few abuses exist, and a faint hope appears of <&or- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 328 

recting them. Though we may see imperfections 
in the government which tends to lessen our hap- 
piness and respectability, we should yet be for- 
bearing, and reflect on the happy influence of diffu- 
sive knowledge, and upon the little that is to be 
hoped from the exercise of force. We should 
weigh the good with the good, and the evil with 
the evil, before we lift the voice against the gov- 
ernment that protects us. " The speculative line 
of demarcation, where obedience ought to end, 
and resistance to begin, is," as Mr. Burke truly 
says, " faint, obscure, and not easily definable. 
Government must be abused and deranged, indeed, 
before it can be thought of; and the prospect of the 
future must be as bad as the experience of the past. 
When things are in that lamentable condition, the 
nature of the disease is to indicate the remedy to 
those whom nature has qualified to administer in 
extremities, this critical, ambiguous, bitter potion 
to a distempered state. Times, and occasions, 
and provocations, will teach their own lessons , 
The wise will determine from the gravity of the 
case — the irritable from sensibility to oppression — 
the high-minded, from disdain and indignation at 
abusive power in unworthy hands — the brave and 
bold from the love of honourable danger in a generous 
cause ; but with or without right, a revolution will be 
the very last resource of the thinking and the good." 
In these free independent states, the people do 
not believe in the " Divine right to govern." We 
recognise no other principle which gives moral 



324 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

authority, than that which bestows the greatest 
possible amount of happiness, the longest period of 
time, on the greatest possible number of people ; 
and this principle is self-government, with equal 
rights and privileges to all mankind. " The divine 
right to govern wrong," cannot be a right derived 
from the Divinity. The God, who is the God of 
happiness, of truth, and virtue, would not, surely, 
authorize any man to make His creatures misera- 
ble. The origin of power and the authority of 
civil law, can arise from no other source than 
from the free, full consent of those who make the 
laws which they are to obey. We do not believe 
that " law is a rule of action proceeding from a 
superior to an inferior," hut a rule of action pre- 
scribed by that whole people who are to obey the 
law. As the people cannot be superior to them- 
selves, our laws cannot come from a superior to 
an inferior. Such is the authority which rests in 
the laws of the United States. 

The constitution and the laws of this govern- 
ment have emanated from the people. They have 
not only made the laws, but have promised to obey 
them ; and thus have given the strongest authority 
which laws can possibly have. Unjust laws and 
tyrannical institutions, imposed by despots, may 
have no claim on the people's obedience ; but 
laws, which the people have made, and in making, 
promised to obey ; which recognise equal rights 
and privileges to all, which derive their authority 
from the consent of those who are to obey, and 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 325 

from that which is right and just within itself, must 
possess the highest claims to implicit, universal 
obedience ; and such is the obedience which every 
citizen of these United States owes to this repub- 
lican government. 

We present the only example of a convention 
of the people, antecedent to the existence of their 
government. The people assembled and elected 
representatives to this convention, for the avowed 
purpose of framing a new constitution. This 
deputation from the people deliberated and resolved 
upon a form of government. The people adopted 
the government they had framed, and thus gave it 
its moral authority. Obedience to the constitution 
and laws of the United States is therefore a pa- 
triotic and a moral duty ; and every member of 
this commonwealth is under a legal and a moral 
obligation to obey his government. 

It is our duty to respect those who have been 
elected to civil offices. The want of proper respect 
for those who enact and administer the laws, begets 
a want of respect for the law itself; and if it is 
not respected, there had better be no law. While 
every government must necessarily partake very 
much of the character of those who administer it, 
it likewise will receive the same love and respect 
which the people give to its officers. In the 
United States, the people are liable to withhold 
that proper regard which they should have for 
their civil officers. These men are taken from 
among the people. Before they were elected to 

Ee 



320 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

office, they received no more respect than any other 
fellow-citizen ; and as they were formerly con- 
sidered and estimated by the people, they are 
likely to be regarded while intrusted with their 
office. But this should not be so ; the sacredness 
and majesty of the law give its officers a claim to 
our respect ; and every man who understands and 
reverences his government, will transfer his respect 
to those who guard and administer it. 

The universal practice of defaming candidates 
for office will have a tendency to make us have 
less respect for those who are elected. We should 
guard against this influence by discriminating be- 
tween the true character, and that which is given 
by party spirit, and by estimating the successful 
candidate in connexion with the duties and sanctity 
of the office. In politics, the majority govern ; 
and he who has the majority should, while in office, 
have the respect of all. Obedience to the laws 
and respect to civil officers, are the first patriotic 
duties of every citizen. 

The third duty which I shall mention is, we 
should defend the laws and constitution of our coun- 
try* The duty of defending the land which we 
love, may be implied in the love we bear to it. 
But when our fathers, by their " valour and their 
blood," gave us a free government, they asked our 
virtue and our patriotism to defend it. When we 
received this glorious boon, we promised to defend 
it : and when aggression would corrupt or destroy 
this consecrated temple of freedom, it is a duty 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 327 

which we owe to our fathers and ourselves to de- 
fend it with our persons, our property, and our 
lives. To think of the invader of our land and our 
rights, is to feel the duty of opposition. If we hear 
that the foot of an enemy has pressed our soil with 
an enemy's purpose, we think of our excellent 
frame of laws which will be broken down; of the 
wild disorder and desolation that will spread over 
the land ; of the miseries of blood and rapine which 
invasion will produce ; and of the deeper miseries 
of slavery and oppression which conquest will 
bring ; these thoughts, together with the love we 
bear to our countrymen and our kindred, will 
rouse every spirit, and nerve every arm, and the 
invader must retreat or perish. 

We may be assailed by the calumnies of rival 
nations, but our defence in this case should be to 
live in such a manner that will prove their asser- 
tions false. By wincing or retorting, we will give 
importance to that which, originally, had no claim 
to our notice. Whatever personal pique or na- 
tional jealousy may think or write about us, let it 
be our constant aim to present to all the spectacle 
of a free, intelligent, high-minded people. Let the 
virtue, the liberty, and the prosperity of our coun- 
try defend the wisdom of its people, its laws, and 
its constitution. 

The citizen, then, is to obey the laws and to de- 
fend them. These two duties relate to the political 
system that exists. He has still one other great 
duty, which relates not to things as they are, but 



328 DISTRICT SCHOOL 

to things as they may he. He is not to preserve 
the present system only ; he is to endeavour, if it 
require or admit of improvement of any sort, to 
render it still more extensively useful to those who 
live under it, and still more worthy of the admira- 
tion of the world than, with all its excellence, it 
yet may be. 

It is the duty of every citizen to increase, to the 
best of his power, the means of public happiness 
in the nation : this he should do by every aid which 
he can give to its external or internal resources \ 
and especially, as the most important of all ends, 
by every improvement which it would be prudent 
to attempt, of any existing evils, in its laws and 
general forms of polity. 

The citizen, then, is not only to admire the laws, 
but he is, to the best of his ability, to improve them* 
Every thing human is more or less imperfect, and, 
therefore, will always admit ©f amendment. And 
he who thoroughly understands his government, 
and sincerely loves it, will, even in the best of 
governments, see many deficiencies to be supplied, 
and many faults to be corrected. It is the affec* 
tionate, faithful duty of every member of this com- 
monwealth to detect and expose the errors of a 
government, which the highest wisdom and expe- 
rience have endeavoured to perfect. It is not true 
patriotism that would keep defects out of sight ; 
nor is he a true patriot who can see nothing to be 
improved. But while we are performing the im- 
portant duty of closely searching for the evils that 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 329 

exist, we should at the same time remember that 
it is very easy to declaim against abuses. To find 
fault with every thing, and at any time, is never 
difficult. Some do it that they may make a show 
of superiority; and others to gratify a cynical dis- 
position. It seems as if some were glad to find a 
fauli, that they may have a chance to round a few 
periods of abusive eloquence. Such declaimers 
should be treated with contempt. But he who, out 
of love to his country and to his fellow-men, pre- 
sents a deficiency or a defect, should have a candid, 
respectful hearing. No one who loves the general 
good, will decry against men or measures, merely 
to gratify his own selfish feelings ; but such a man 
must publish wrongs and point out evils. He does 
it because the happiness of man is dearer to him 
than the respect of blind admirers of their country. 

But, however honest we may be in our efforts 
to reform, we should always act cautiously: and 
where there is not experience to consult, and a dif- 
ference of opinion, we should mistrust our judg- 
ments. Sudden changes and rash innovations are 
always to be feared. Blind zeal and hasty mea- 
sures we all have a right to suspect. The true 
patriot, then, will exercise a proper respect for the 
laws and institutions that are, and will attentively 
consider the evils of a change, and of the chances 
for and against him of making the proposed altera- 
tion an extensive, permanent amendment. 

Men are apt to make changes under the name of 
reform, because they see obstacles to their ambi- 
Ee2 



33T0 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

tion or avarice. We are very liable to be deceived 
here. What we wish to be so, we easily believe 
ought to be so. When a statesman contemplates 
a change, and sees that it will greatly improve his 
own interest, it is not very difficult to omit the 
consideration of the nation's good ; at least, argu- 
ments for the latter will not occur so readily as 
arguments for the former. We need to watch our- 
selves, therefore, w T hen we would recommend a 
new law, or an alteration in the existing one. 
When we act for the public, let us see that the 
public good is our motive. 

We may fulfil the duty of augmenting the general 
happiness of our country by increasing its products. 
He is a benefactor to his country who improves the 
art of cultivating the soil ; who invents or brings 
into general notice useful instruments of husbandry ; 
who brings to greater perfection the different vari- 
eties of grain, and makes known their most con- 
genial soil and climate. He who makes two blades 
of grass grow where but one has been raised, in- 
creases the means of his country's happiness. He 
who gives his leisure moments to the science of 
mineralogy, and by this means discovers a mine 
of coal or metallic ore, opens to his country a source 
of labour and of wealth ? and they who invent 
machinery for manufacturing the mines of the 
earth, and the products of the soil, are justly 
counted benefactors of their nation. As the pro- 
ducts of a nation are the wages of the people, he 
who increases the amount of labour by machinery 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 331 

or skill, so as to increase the products, will, in the 
same proportion, increase the wealth of the people. 
A mechanic may bless his country by improving 
his tools, his machinery, and the article he manu- 
factures. A farmer may do a national good by 
improving the breed of cattle, and of all kinds of 
stock, and by enriching the soil he cultivates. To 
make this increase and improvement in the pro- 
ducts of the land is the duty, as far as he is able, 
of every citizen. The nation gives him protection 
and encouragement that he may do so ; and in his 
allegiance he promises to do his duty and seek his 
country's greatest good. 

We may increase the happiness of our people by 
opening new markets for our products. We have 
some wants which we cannot supply, and others 
for which we have more than a supply. By ex- 
changing equal values with other nations, the sur- 
plus of our products are given for those which we 
could not supply ourselves ; or else the surplus is 
exchanged for money, which, having a common 
value, may be given for any required necessary of 
life. Now, he who opens a new market where 
the raw materials and manufactures which remain 
after our wants are supplied, may be exchanged 
for money or the necessaries of life, has increased 
the labour and the wealth of his country. We 
may open new markets at home by increasing the 
consumption with new manufactories. By these 
noble, national enterprises, every citizen may be a 
patron and a blesser of his country ; and a man is 



332 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

obligated to do not only what is right, but all that 
he can do. 

We may increase our country's strength and 
wealth by facilitating the intercourse between dis- 
tricts. The projection and execution of canals and 
rail-roads, making rivers navigable, and opening 
highways between important locations, increases 
the value of the lands, and unites die strength of a 
nation. The prosperity of a country depends as 
much upon the rapidity and cheapness of its inland 
conveyance, as it does upon its good soil and safe 
harbours. When the transportation is cheap and 
regular, remote districts enjoy the advantages of 
home and foreign markets ; by this means they are 
placed by the side of seaport towns. To facilitate 
intercourse where the lands are as distant as they 
are in the United States, is a very important duty, 
and one that every citizen owes to the prosperity 
of his country. 

Another benevolent and patriotic duty of citizens 
is the establishment of institutions of charity and 
instruction. Institutions like these are the fairest 
ornaments of the land ; and the founder of them is 
entitled to the lasting gratitude of nations. In the 
United States, the literary institutions are the 
sources and the depositories of liberty ; and the 
charitable institutions of this republic — the asylum 
of a world — are the resting places and the home 
of the destitute and the helpless of every nation* 
He who founds a school of instruction, establishes 
the liberty of his country ; and he who educates 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 333 

the people, makes them free. Those who have 
enlightened mankind, and diffused useful know- 
ledge through the whole mass of the people, have 
been the greatest philanthropists of their race, for 
I know of no benevolence so exalted as that which 
pours light and truth into the immortal mind. 

He who wishes his country to take a high stand- 
ing among the nations of the earth ; he who wishes 
for the growing improvement and prosperity of his 
countrymen ; and he who wishes the perpetuity of 
this glorious example of liberty and self-govern- 
ment, will desire to do all in his power to educate 
the people. We may serve our country by defend- 
ing her constitution, by fighting her battles, and by 
contributing to her revenues; but never do we 
serve her so nobly and so effectually as we do 
when we educate her people. The enlightened man 
makes the laws his slaves under him ; but the ig- 
norant man is a slave under the laws. Intelligent 
men and freemen are always synonymous ; — they 
always have and always will signify the same 
thing. Then, let those who would serve their 
country in the highest and noblest capacity which 
they can have, see that the education and the litera- 
ture of their country is supported and encouraged. 

It is the duty of citizens to be able and disposed 
to correct the errors which exist in the systems of 
government. Experience, where there is proper 
observation and reflection, is a constant teacher. 
That which appeared wise in theory yesterday* 
may, by trying its application, appear inexpedient 



334 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 

in practice to-morrow. The law that looked just 
and benevolent in the abstract, may, when meeting 
with the relations of other laws, be found unsuitable 
in practice; and laws which have received the 
approval of those who obey, may, under a change 
of circumstances, be found oppressive. It is the 
duty, therefore, of citizens to correct the errors 
which ignorance, or inexperience, or change of 
circumstances have occasioned. As long as the 
machinery of government is a human construction, 
there will be errors in it, and it is the duty of men to 
watch the effect of experience, and detect that which 
may be pernicious, and succour that which is found 
beneficial. By this means we may do much to 
augment the general happiness. He who exposes 
a bad law, and proposes a good one in its stead, 
presents a valuable offering to society. A wise 
law may do more good to a nation than all its in- 
dividual benevolence. It may prevent evils and 
confer blessings which will place its author among 
the benefactors of his age. 

Citizens may increase the general happiness of 
their country, by adapting their form of govern- 
ment to the condition and character of the people. 
Man is a mutable being. Our motives, purposes, 
objects of affection, and views of life, are the sub- 
jects of a continued change. The principle of mu- 
tation runs not only through the life of each indi- 
vidual, but through the whole spirit and genius of 
nations. What was applauded and reverenced 
yesterday, is despised to-day. Such is the fluctua- 



DISTRICT SCHOOL. 335 

tion of feeling, and the transiloriness of opinion. 
Now, that is the best government which is best 
adapted to the feelings, education, and circum- 
stances of its subjects. When the people become 
different, their government should become different. 
The influence of the laws should be such as to assist 
a good change, or check a bad one. And as the 
people are constantly varying, the laws will re- 
quire a corresponding modification. He who sees 
these mutations in the people, and the influence of 
the existing government, will know whether they 
are adapted to each other or not : and if he per- 
ceives an unsuitableness in the one to the other, 
he will confer a blessing on the nation by making 
the incongruity known. 

And, lastly, we may augment the general hap- 
piness of our country, by making ourselves virtuous 
and intelligent. To perform this duty, is to pre- 
pare ourselves for every other one; and every 
citizen of a free government is under a legal and 
a moral obligation to become intelligent enough to 
make his laws, and virtuous enough to obey them. 
In this country, knowledge is brought to the door of 
every man ; means of useful information may be 
used by all, for every encouragement is given to 
our citizens that they may " inform the head and 
improve the heart." To improve ourselves that 
we may enlighten others, and to lead a moral and 
a religious life that we may be a good example to 
others, is a duty which every man owes to his 
fellow-men ; but how emphatically is it the duty 




I HO / f 3 



X 



'I 7& 



336 DISTRICT SCHOOL. 



of freemen ! We do not give our country liberty 
by giving it just and equal laws, but by giving it 
intellectual and religious instruction; neither do 
we give our country greatness and happiness by 
giving it a free constitution, but by giving the 
whole people mental and moral light. Then, if 
we would perpetuate our country's happiness and 
liberty, we must make ourselves intellectual and 
moral instructers. If we would be patriotic citi- 
zens, we must be well-informed, religious men. 



THE END. 



